Language Education Policies
in Singapore
Dr. Tri Ly Lam
Instructor of ESL, Santa Ana College
trilylam@aol.com
Introduction
The purpose of this review is to investigate Singapore’s Language in Education
Planning, a primary form of second language acquisition planning, which is defined as
a language policy-making to cope with using and teaching languages in the country
(Wiley, 1996).
Language use promotes language status, which “changes the function of this language
and the right of those who use it”; on the other hand, language instruction enhances
language corpus, which seeks for standardizing varieties of this language to serve for
the language function in society (Wardhaugh, 1998. p. 347).
Crucially, the investigation focuses on the language in education planning, in terms of
English and Chinese, in Singapore; the planning is to serve for language status and
corpus. Singapore has succeeded in making its language policy in the multiethniclingual context of the country.
Findings form the review give conclusive evidence: (1) Chinese slows down march of
English, but English still achieve dominance, (2) English in education planning results
a paradox between language used in society (status) different what is instructed at
school (corpus), and (3) Mandarin in education planning. Discussions on issues and
trends of language in education planning in Singapore are given.
Background
Language in education planning consists of the present relationship to historical
background of languages in a country, Singapore is known as a multilingual and
multiethnic country, where a top-down policy is applied to language education.
Historically, the British colonial government was not much interest language planning
and education. Notably, language literacy has increased in English, Chinese, Malay
and Tamil.
Debates on language policy
The city of Singapore was founded in 1819, and its residents were multilingual
(Ethnic Categories, n.d.). At that juncture, over two and a half millions of people
included about 76% of Chinese, Malay 15%, 7% of Indian, and 2% of others. Chinese
were from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malay, and Southeast Asia. Malays
were not only from Malay, but also from Indonesia archipelago. And most of Indian
Singaporeans had an origin of Tamils. All these residents with different races have
used English as a first language along with their native languages. Essentially,
Singapore’s language context consists of English, Chinese, and Malay, and Tamil.
The linguistic context has resulted in the language policy debate with equal treatment
as language literacy increases from 1970s to 1990s occurred to English, Chinese,
Malay, and Tamil (Language, society, and education in Singapore, n.d.). (See Table 1
and Figure 1 below.)
Table 1
Percentage of Literacy increases from 1970s to 1990s
Language
1970s
1980s
1990s
English
49.4
56.0
65.0
Chinese
49.4
59.6
61.5
Malay
16.6
16.0
Tamil
3.3
3.4
Background of English in Singapore
The early period of British rule in the nineteenth century, English medium
educationwas not developed (Moyer, 2004). In 1819, the British colonial government
took over Singapore as trading port, where East Indian Company had controlled it
before. In fact, there had not been English education policy by the British colonial
government till the end of this century. In this period, few students were educated in
English in this period. To be brief, the beginning of the British colonial time, few
were educated at English medium school in the colony.
English medium education was developed in the twentieth century (Gupta, 2003). In
the first twenty years of the twentieth century, English medium education became
popular for all Singaporeans. In 1950s most children went to schools, and they were
educated at English medium schools. In transition, Singapore became an independent
country in 1965; from then on, English has been still used and even developed for a
language medium education in all schools. With a little change, in 1980s, students
learned another language in addition to English while they were at English medium
schools.
Essentially, English has developed to become a language medium education over
time, from the colonial time, through the transitional period, to the most recent of the
independent republic. For Singapore, English is their main language spoken at home,
and the first language taught at schools. Historically, it is fascinating for English in
this country. Language literacy therefore has increased with these four languages in
Singapore.
Background of Chinese in Singapore
Chinese Education has developed in Singapore from the British colonial time till now.
In the beginning of colonial period, the British colonial government had an open
policy for immigration; therefore, in this colony, there were many new immigrants, of
which Chinese occupied 75%. These Chinese immigrants spoke different dialects of
the southern part of China, but they would use the same writing system. Though the
colonial government did not have any language education for the Chinese language,
its dialects were spoken at home. The greatest population of the Chinese immigrants
made the Chinese language influential in this land.
Background of Malay in Singapore
Malay, the official language of Malaysia, is an ethnic language in Singapore. Malay is
spoken in Singapore like that in the West of Malaysia. From the beginning of the
British colonial time, Malay was a lingua franca in Singapore, so Sir Stamford Raffles
the founder of Singapore launched Malay literature into the West to enrich it; in the
late 1950s, the language alphabet was romanized (Malay: language and heritage, n.d.)
Background of Tamil in Singapore
One of the main ethnic components of Singapore’s society is the Indian population, in
which Tamils occupies 64%, almost two-thirds: Some of the Tamils come from the
southeastern India, the Tamil Nadu state, and others are from the northern Sri Lanka
(The Indians, n.d.). In the case of Tamil, Singapore’s language policy, in both status
and corpus planning, seems anti-Tamil, the authority of language education is not
determined for what kind of Tamil is integrated in language curriculum because of its
variety (Schiffman, n.d.). In fact, the type of Tamil that is taught is not the type used
as the actual mother tongue in community language. Critically, Tamil is degraded in
Singapore’s language planning in both status and corpus.
Background of language education
Singapore’s education system supports the bilingual education, but it unfairly treats
Tami. Tamil is considered a “coolie” language, or t is not a target language for
learning officially in the bilingual education policy. On the contrary, English is
learned as the first and official language at schools, where English is educated, and
Chinese has recently been considered a main language in education planning.
English in Education Planning
Of four main languages spoken in Singapore, English has a superior status to Chinese,
Malay, and Tamil though there are not native speakers of English in the country.
Status planning
Wardhaugh (1998) gives five statuses for the English language, the language of
instruction Singapore: a government language, a socio-economic language, and finally
a service language. First, All government offices use English to mange and control the
public; basically, it is used for language bureaucracy for three bodies of the
government when it is used in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Second, English is an occupational language used in all socioeconomic levels in the
country, that is, a chance for an applicant for a job depends on his or her English. It is
true enough that Tamil (in fact, Malay as well) is considered a “coolie language”,
which is used for a labor job or a low-wage job (c.f. Tamil in Singapore). Third,
English is used in financial service in banking offices, or in transportation, hotel, and
tourism; in these services, only English is powerfully used for both all residents and
foreigners whose native languages may not be a native speakers of English. Chiefly,
English education isimplemented to enhance its status for use in the government
system, at the socio-economic levels, and business services.
Corpus planning
English medium education began and was developed in the twentieth century (Gupta,
2003). In the first twenty years of the twentieth century, English medium education
became popular for all Singaporeans. In 1950s most children went to schools, and
they were educated at English medium schools. In transition, Singapore became an
independent country in 1965; from then on, English has been still used and even
developed for a language medium education in all schools. With a little change, in
1980s, students learned another language in addition to English while they were at
English medium schools
Contradiction between use and instruction of English
Research on English in Singapore shows that Singapore English (Singlish) used in
society is different from English instructed at school. As a language used in society,
grammatically Singlish has null arguments in colloquialism, subject omission in
spoken English, zero plural in business English, redundancy with particles, etc.
(Deterding, & et al., 2003). The dictionary of Singlish by Chao (2002) gives evidence
that Malay and Chinese languages (Mandarin and Chinese dialects) had influences on
elements of lexicon and syntax in Singapore English. Fundamentally, Singlish is not
used as a medium of instruction in school; English in Education planning is aimed at
promote English use that is formed, codified, elaborated, and implemented with a
standardized English; in fact, instruction of English is different from its use; that is,
Singapore speakers of English don’t use English that teachers always teach at schools.
Sarcastically, Singaporeans realizes that it is not good to use Singlish, but they still
use it (Parkir, 1998).
Chinese in Education Planning
Status Planning
The Strait Time’s survey (Hoong, 1999) shows that Chinese is a lingua franca, not
English because it is spoken more than English in Singapore. Most students speak
Chinese at home and at school while one-third of students speak English with their
classmate. Also in this survey, most of them watch TV and read newspapers in
Chinese. Academically, the score students do in Chinese is better than that in English.
The survey shows that students at primary 5 to secondary 4 aged from 11 to 16 speak
Chinese more than English. It is obvious that Mandarin is a language used in
Singapore society, and particularly it is used in mass media. Crucially, its status is
promoted as English for business and education.
Corpus planning
There is an influential relationship between language policy and Chinese language
spoken in Singapore, where Mandarin has dominated other Chinese dialects (Gupta,
1996). In 1979, there was a Chinese language campaign, known as “Speak More
Mandarin, in Singapore. Since then, Mandarin has become a lingua franca in the
whole country. The campaign rises with two different periods of Chinese language
education before and after it, and it also creates a negative impact on both Chinese
dialect speakers and other non-Chinese minorities.
Before the campaign, Chinese Singaporeans had spoken some of southern Chinese
dialects at home: Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese (so called Teoche);
students who were educated at English-medium schools would choose one or some of
these dialects to learn for oral use with each others; therefore, those students were not
good at speaking Mandarin; however, students who were educated at Chinesemedium schools mastered all language skills in Mandarin.
After the campaign, all Chinese dialects have not been spoken at home. Even though
those know and use their dialects at home, they with their own will choose Mandarin
to speak at home. The campaign is so powerful that parents use Mandarin, and also
they have made their children use it at home. At long last, the campaign has given
Mandarin the highest position in the Chinese language in Singapore.
Contradiction between Mandarin and Chinese dialects.
Switching to use Mandarin has influenced not only the users of the Chinese dialects,
but also the non-Chinese users of other languages. In fact, the campaign results in a
threat to parents who don not have proficiency in Mandarin. Also it has threatened the
status of other non-Chinese minorities together with their own languages. Language
education for other non-Chinese languages has been degraded. Undeniably, the
campaign has created an issue of racial harmony in the country.
Issues and Trends of Language in Education Planning
Issues and trends of English
The 2001 English language curriculum is aimed at the purpose of communication
promoting the status of English as a language used in society and instructed at schools
(Chiuan, 2003). The legacy of English in Singapore has grown in contact with other
languages making it a hybrid language, Singapore English (Singlish), which can
evolve to me new culture and communicative needs more and more in the future of
this country. Chine market together with its economic growth and expansion in the
Southeast Asia would make language policy to promote its status, and Chinese would
compete with English as a first language. Regardless of Chinese growth in the 1980s
and 1990s, English would achieve dominance (c.f. Language policy debate, pp. 3-4).
Issues and trends of Mandarin
Prime Minster Goh Chok Tong urges the Chinese Singaporeans to preserve their
language and culture, and he stresses that the Republic Singapore has its own identity,
and it is not an extension of Mainland China (Chinese Singapore urged to preserve
culture, n.d.). For the status of Mandarin, he China’s economic growth promotes
Chinese as a main language that must be used with English as bilingual newspaper to
attract the youth. What he says reflects the issues and trends of language policy
making: (1) Chinese would compete with English as a language for business and
education, and it is not inferior to English, (2) other minority languages that are now
instructed together with English at schools would be influenced by Chinese in
language planning in future.
Conclusion
Language in education planning in Singapore has promoted the function of English
and Chinese for business communication in society and instruction at schools. This
language policy is unable to bridge a gap between Singapore English used in society
and Queen’s English (British English) educated at schools. Also this policy promotes
Mandarin not only compete with English, but also hurt other Chinese dialects.
Essentially, language in education planning in Singapore helps Mandarin slow down
march of English, but English still achieve dominance in Singapore.
References
Chao, P. (2002). The coxford Singlish dictionary. Singapore: Angsaga
Books.
Chinese Singaporeans urged to preserve Culture. (n.d.) retrieved
November 24, 2004 from http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/090698-01.html
Education and culture policy. (2002, October). Retrieved November
25, 2004 from
http://www.auswaertigesamt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laenderausgabe_html?t
ype_id=13&land_id=153
Chiuan, C. C. S. (2003). Singapore primary school teachers’ belief in
grammar teaching and learning. In D. Dertenng, L. F. Ling, & A.
Brown, English in Singapore: Research on grammar, pp. 117-127.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Deterding, D., Ling. L F., & Brown, A. (Eds.) (2003). English in
Singapore: Research on grammar. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Gupta, A. F. (1996). The step-tongue: Children’s English in Singapore.
TESL-EJ [On-line], (2) 2. Available:
http://www-writing.berkeley.edu.TESL-EJ/ej06/r7.html
Gupta, A. F. (1996). Singapore colloquial English (Singlish) [On-line].
Available: http://www.une.edu.au/langnet/singlish.html
Hoong, C. M. (1999, January 22). Good pupil tend to spend more time
on Chinese. Singapore Strait Times on the Web. Retrieved
November 20, 2004, from
http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/012299-02.html
Hoong. C. M. Changes to teaching Chinese. (1999, January 22).
Singapore Strait Times on the Web. Retrieved November 20, 2004,
from http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/01219901.html
Landow, P. L. (n.d.) Singapore and Malaysian English after
independence. Retrieved November 24, 2004 form
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/singapore/people/language/sme3.htm
Leow, J. (1999, June 1). Most pupils find Chinese easy. Singapore
Strait Times on the Web. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from
http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/news/060199-02.html
Students like Chinese less with time. (1999, January 22). Singapore
Strait Times on the Web. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from
http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/012299-01.html
Leow, J. (1999, January 21). Ways to enhance status of Chinese
language. Singapore Straits Times on the web. Retrieved
November 23, 2004 from http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/012199-02.html
Malay: language and culture heritage. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23,
2004 form http://www.deeptrans.com/deeptrans/mallanofrich.html
Moyer, A, J. (n.d.). Singapore: A multilingual, multiethnic country.
Retrieved November 23, 2004 from
http://www.emu.edu/courses/eddt5582/Singapore.html
Pakir, A. (1998). The codification of competing norms. In S. Goinathan, & et al.,
Language, society and education in Singapore: issues and trends. Singapore: Times
Academic Press.
Schiffman, H. (n.d.). Tamil language policy in Singapore: the role of
implementation. Retrieved November 24, 2004 from
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/public/implement.html
Singapore to increase study of Chinese language (2004, January 20).
AFP on the Web. Retrieved November 24, 2004 from
http://huaren.org/diaspora/asia/singapore/id/012099-01.html
Wardhaugh, R. Introduction to sociolinguistics (3rd ed.). Malden, MA:
Blackwell Publishers.
Wiley, T. G. (2002). Language planning and policy. In S. L. McKay, &
N. H. Hornberger, Sociolinguistics and language teaching, pp. 103148. New York: Cambridge University Press.