English 384-001: Writing Ethnography
Fall 2011
Professor: Terry Myers Zawacki, English Department
Office: RobA435 Phone: 703.993.1187 Email: tzawacki@gmu.edu
Office Hours: Wednesday 12:00 – 1:00 and by appointment or drop-in
Class meets MW 10:30 – 11:45, Research Hall 202
Class wiki:*
http://english311writingethnography.pbworks.com/w/page/35054195/FrontPage
Course Description:
"Writing Ethnography" entails the close study of a local culture; we will be concerned
with the theoretical and practical processes of observing, interviewing, note taking,
analyzing, and writing (about) a culture. For this first- hand “fieldwork,” you'll choose a
particular site to study, perhaps a culture in which you yourself are already located.
Your research site may be a place, a group, or even individuals who share some
common experience, interest, or concern. You’ll spend a lot of time at your site,
observing, talking to participants, writing field notes, and interviewing “informants”
(people with particular knowledge of the culture). The research you gather will inform
and form the ethnographic narrative you write. Along the way, you’ll turn in regular
“integrative memos,” describing your progress, making connections among your
research data, and identifying themes that will help to focus your narrative; you’ll also
turn in, on a regular basis, sections of your ethnography in progress.
As background for this work, you’ll read ethnographic accounts written by academics
as well as a number written by students. These readings are loosely focused on the
diversity of the communities we are part of and interact with in our day-to-day lives. The
course culminates in a final portfolio containing your ethnographic account of the culture
you’ve studied; any materials you’ve gathered at and about the site; your field work
journal, integrative memos and reflections; and portions of transcribed interviews you’ve
conducted with informants. Underlying all of our work will be these rhetorical and ethical
questions: How do the ethnographer’s own identity and purpose(s) for the research
influence what is observed, recorded, and written up? For what audiences and for what
ends is the culture being re/presented on the page? To what extent should participants
in the culture have a voice in that re/presentation?
Course goals: This course will help you develop primary research, writing, and
analytical skills that will serve you well no matter what your academic and career goals
may be. You will learn how to conduct systematic qualitative research by observing
closely and taking careful notes, by interviewing individuals and groups and listening
carefully, and by writing up and analyzing your data thoughtfully and ethically. Using all
of the information (data) you’ve collected, you’ll learn how to tell a lively, focused, wellsupported, logically and ethically sound story about the culture you’ve studied. And
you’ll consider how and what you might give back to this culture in return for all that they
have given you—their time, their insider information, their insights, and their stories.
*
Please note that the course number has changed to English 384; however, the wiki space still goes by the old
course number because only Wikispaces can change the name of a wiki.)
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Ethnography weaves together the strands of several stories: the personal story of
the ethnographer, the story of the ethnographer working in the field, the stories of
the people at the site, and the story of the site. --adapted from a talk given by
Professor Peggy Yocom, Mason folklorist
Required Texts:



Best, Amy. Fast Cars, Cool Rides: The Accelerating World of Youth and Their
Cars. (Best)
Duneier, Mitchell. Sidewalk. (MD)
(Note: We’ll read only a few chapters from each of these books, so you may want
to figure out how to share the books with each other.)
And…our class WIKI-http://english311writingethnography.pbworks.com/w/page/35054195/FrontPage*
On the Wiki, you’ll find our syllabus, broken down into weekly pages, as well as links to
sites and readings, individual folders for you to store and share your assignments and
sections, and very important “how-to” handouts. About the latter: You’ve probably
noticed that we don’t have a textbook on the procedures and processes for writing
ethnographies, so I’ve posted how-to information on site selection, developing research
questions, writing lay summaries and informed consent documents, gaining access,
writing field notes, interviewing, etc. You’ll also see links to required readings from the
open-source textbook, Translating Culture.
Required articles on e-reserve. Search by my last name or the course number.
Password “seeing”
 Yocom, Margaret. “’We’ll Watch Out for Liza and the Kids’: Spontaneous Memorials
and Personal Response at the Pentagon, 2001”
 Searle, Sarah. “The Mason Life Program: An Ethnography …”
 Eberle, Sonja. “Arrival” and “’What Makes a Puppet a Puppet Rather Than a
Potholder?’” (student ethnography)
 Foster, Holly. “Bingo” (student ethnography)
 Pohedra, Jennifer. “Beyond the Stage: An Ethnography of Comedian Culture”
(student ethnography)
 “Ralph’s Sports Bar” (student ethnography)
 Lawless, Elaine. “Prelude,” “Prologue,” and “Introduction” to Women Escaping
Violence: Empowerment Through Narrative (Please print out the Lawless articles
for an in-class “close-reading” discussion).
Also required: Tape recorder for interviewing!
Recommended Texts for further study:
 Hammersley, Martyn. Ethnography: Principles in Practice. Routledge. (Strongly
recommended)
Students must use their Mason email accounts—either the existing “MEMO” system or a
new “MASONLIVE” account to receive important University information, including
messages related to this class. See http://masonlive.gmu.edu for more information.
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
Thomas, Jim. Doing Critical Ethnography. Sage: Qualitative Research Methods
Series 26
Recommended E-reserve student ethnographies depending on your interests:
 Gray, Diedre. “Let the Fans Speak: A Study of Anime Culture” (student ethnography)
 Keating, Kristen. “Dog Fancier Culture” (student ethnography)
 Antram, Alex. “A Different Place of Worship” (student ethnography)
Important websites to bookmark:
 Office of Research Subjects Protections:
http://www.gmu.edu/research/ORSP/HumanPoliciesAndProcedures.html
 Training information for those seeking Human Subjects Review Board permission for
research: http://www.gmu.edu/research/ORSP/HumanTraining.html
More useful websites:
 Folklore resources: http://folklore.gmu.edu/Pages/Resources_At_GMU/media.php
Course Requirements:
Participation—Our class is run as a workshop, so I do little lecturing. Instead you’ll be
reporting on your work, leading discussions on the readings, and working with each
other in pairs and in groups to respond to and critique each other's work. Attendance
and active participation are very important. In order to be an active participant, you'll
need to be prepared for every class, whether it be keeping up with the reading,
spending time at your fieldwork site, analyzing and reflecting on the materials you’ve
gathered, and/or writing up your fieldwork. We often write at the beginning of the class,
so it will also be important for you to be on time. (From the university catalog: “Students
are expected to attend the class periods of the courses for which they are registered. Inclass participation is important not only to the individual student, but also to the class as
a whole. Because class participation may be a factor in grading, instructors may use
absence, tardiness, or early departure as de facto evidence of nonparticipation.” See:
http://catalog.gmu.edu/content.php?catoid=17&navoid=1274#attendance)
Assignments
The ethnography (18 pages or longer) with accompanying portfolio materials constitutes
the major portion of your writing work (and final grade) in the course. These materials
include the proposal, lay summary, signed informed consent forms, and your fieldwork
notes and transcriptions. Other assignments include writing exercises, reading logs,
your fieldwork journal, interview transcription, and regular updates and integrative
memos.
Grading
Your final grade will be based on your demonstrated understanding (in discussions,
reading logs, quizzes, peer review, and ethnographic project) of the theory and practice
of writing ethnography and your proficiency in writing an interesting, astute, wellsupported, and technically correct final ethnography. Final ethnography and portfolio
with evidence of ongoing fieldwork = 30%; sections of your ethnography = 30%; reading
logs (due when indicated on syllabus), quizzes, exercises, contributions to class and
group discussion = 20%; average of other materials (proposal, lay summary, integrative
memos, interview transcript) = 20%.
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Some grading and revision logistics: You’ll turn in sections of your ethnography at
regular intervals, where noted on the syllabus. These will be given grades that will be
averaged together as part of your overall 30% section grade. For the final ethnography,
each of the sections can be—and may well need to be—revised. You may also choose
to revise sections as soon as they are returned to achieve a higher grade. However, if
you have turned in sections late, you will not have this revision option.
Note on late work: Assignments are due at the beginning of the class period. You must
be in class to turn in these assignments on time. The proposal, lay summary, integrative
memos, and ethnography sections will be given a late grade if they are not turned in the
day they are due. Please do not give these to another student to turn in if you are
unable to attend class. Rather, you should make arrangements with me for turning in
the work late. Exercises, reading log entries, and other daily kinds of assignments may
not be made up if you are absent the day they are due. In the event of an unavoidable
absence, you should contact a classmate to find out what you missed so that you will be
prepared for class when you return. Please feel free to talk with me about
accommodating unavoidable absences.
Accommodations for Students with Disabilities: If you are a student with a disability
and need academic accommodations, please see me and contact the Office of
Disability Resources at 703.993.2474. All academic accommodations must be arranged
through that office.
Honor code: Finally, I want to remind you of the commitment all of us in the university
community have made to upholding ethical standards for researching and writing in the
academy. .The principle of academic integrity is taken very seriously and violations are
treated gravely. What does academic integrity mean in this course? Essentially this:
when you are responsible for a task, you will perform that task. When you rely on
someone else’s work in an aspect of the performance of that task, you will give full
credit in the proper, accepted form. Another aspect of academic integrity is the free play
of ideas. Vigorous discussion and debate are encouraged in this course, with the firm
expectation that all aspects of the class will be conducted with civility and respect for
differing ideas, perspectives, and traditions. You may want to revisit the student honor
code at: http://academicintegrity.gmu.edu/honorcode/.
Provisional Schedule
As the course progresses and I learn more about who you are as readers, researchers,
and writers, I may adjust the pace of the course and the assignment due dates, so, if
you’re not able to make it to class, be sure to contact a peer to see if the assignment
and/or the due date has changed. Note: All assignments are due on the day they are
listed on the syllabus.
Week One
August 29: Intro to Course. What are the meanings of “Culture” and a “culture”? How
does one determine insiders and outsiders to a culture? What is an ethnography?
Ethnographic method? What fields employ ethnographic methods? How is ethnography
different from a feature article for popular media? What constitutes a research “site”?
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In her ethnography Prom Night, sociologist Amy Best defines “culture” as “an
ongoing process that requires not only a close examination of those practices,
symbols, artifacts, and texts that comprise and organize daily life, but also
recognizing that these aspects of daily life carry different meanings for the people
in these settings as they do for the dominant culture” (12).
August 31: Cultures you belong to--by birth, by family/community ties, by choice?
In class, we’ll brainstorm lists of the cultures and subcultures you are part of and some
of the distinctive features of these cultures as well as the cultural groups you’re either
somewhat familiar with or not at all familiar with and which you would like to know more
about. These lists will start you thinking about what culture/group/community you might
like to investigate. Read: In the Wiki folder titled “Culture and Ways of Seeing,” read
these pages: Looking for (at) Culture, Culture and Identity, Identity and Observation.
Week Two
Sept 5: Labor Day. No Class.
Sept 7: What is qualitative research? What does an ethnography look like? How
is an ethnography different from a feature story? Read: 1) "Introduction to Primary
Research" by Dana Driscoll in the open source textbook Writing Spaces. The chapter
gives a good overview of qualitative methods, although not all of her discussion pertains
to ethnography. Be sure to bookmark (or print) the chapter so that you can go back to
refer to it throughout the semester. 2) “The Adventures of Greg: Introducing Greg
Estrada,” a Washington Post Magazine feature available at
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A28671-2005Apr6.html (April 10, 2005;
Page W04). Then read on E-reserve, Jennifer Pohedra’s ethnography “Beyond the
Stage.” Take note of the different approaches and techniques the feature story and the
ethnography each employ. Notice too the elements of an ethnographic report in
Pohedra’s project. 3) Explore the Story Corps and Valuing Written Accents sites and be
prepared to discuss why I’ve included these sites as examples of ethnographic work.
Write (to be turned in): A short list of sites you are considering for your ethnographic
investigation, noting which ones you are particularly interested in and questions you
may have. Or, preferably, write a short description of the site you are intending to study
and why.
Week Three
Sept 12: Paired Introductions. Ways of Seeing. Who am I in/to the culture? What
accounts for the “gaze” that observes, collects, and analyzes data? Read 1) “Body
Ritual among the Nacirema” at http://www.msu.edu/~jdowell/miner.html. Jot down some
points to discuss in class. 2) Also read the first chapter of the open-source textbook
Translating Cultures at http://www.sbm.questionthequids.org/wp-content/uploads/introand-chapter-1-10.8.pdf. You’ll need to scroll down to get to Chapter 1 “Introducing
Cultural Inquiry.” Write about your identity: In class, you made a list of cultures you
belong to; now you’ll write in more depth about your identity related to these cultures.
Here are some questions to consider: What are some of the different cultures you
belong to, including cultures which are defined, at least partially, by fixed identities like
race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, religion, age, size, and so on. What kinds of
things have been said to you about the group? How closely do you relate to the group?
How might participation in this group shape your perspectives on “other” groups? Do
you remember any times when you claimed or denied one of the groups you belong to?
(700 words or so, typed double-spaced. Begin with your name as an integral part of
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your identity. You don’t have to address all of the questions nor write about them in the
order above. Reveal only what you are comfortable sharing with your peers in the
class.)
Sept 14: Examining the elements of an ethnographic report. Read: To get a sense
of what your final project might look like, read Sarah Searle’s ethnography of the Mason
Life Program. Based on Searle’s and Pohedra’s ethnographies, be prepared to discuss
what seem to be typical characteristics of an ethnographic report.
Week Four:
Sept 19: Identity, observation, reflexivity. In class: paired observation exercises.
Read: In Wiki folder “Culture and Ways of Seeing,” read Roles and Goals as Participant
Observer. Also read “Writing Observations,” Chapter Five in Translating Culture at
http://www.sbm.questionthequids.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/chapter-5-e28093writing-observations-jan08.pdf. Take note of the guiding questions for observing that are
included at the end of the chapter. Turn in: Proposal for your ethnographic research in
which you describe the site, why you are interested, what secondary research you may
want to consult, and how you will gain access. See directions for the research proposal
and a student example in the Wiki folder “Doing Ethnography: Processes and
procedures.”
Sept 21: Lay summaries, consent forms, and the ethics of entry to a culture. The
Human Subjects Review Board: What is it? Who must seek HSRB permission?
Informed Consent—required from all participants in your study. Read: 1) Visit the
“Policies and Procedures” page of the HSRB site
(http://research.gmu.edu/ORSP/HumanPoliciesAndProcedures.html). Download and
read the following documents: Classroom Projects Guidelines and FAQS, Guidelines for
Informed Consent, and Human Subjects (Definition). 2) Visit the Human Subjects Forms
and Instruction page at
http://research.gmu.edu/ORSP/HumanFormsAndInstructions.html. Download and read
the “Human Subjects Application Form” and the “Informed Consent Template.” Please
note that you will turn in a lay summary and an informed consent form on Sept 26.
However, you should be engaged in research on your site at this point, so, if you are
interviewing people at/about your site, please prepare a consent form and lay summary
in advance of the Sept. 26 due date. (You’ll find directions for writing a lay summary
and an informed consent form in the folder “Doing Ethnography: Process and
Procedures.” You’ll also find a number of student examples of consent forms and lay
summaries.)
Week Five
Sept 26: Why ethnography matters. Read: Sidewalk: 1) MD “Introduction,” “The Book
Vendor,” “The Magazine Vendor,” and the Appendix. In reading log (about 2 pages
typed), note the questions that motivate Duneier’s investigation, what he says about his
methods (for gaining access and for taping informants), his own positioning, and, in the
two chapters, notice particularly the way he uses his interview and observational data to
create lively scenes and highlight the issues. (Note: You’ll have a methods section
somewhere in your project, so, in your fieldwork journal, be sure to keep careful notes
on your own methods.)
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Sept 28: Dunier documentary. Also due: Lay summary and Informed Consent forms.
You’ll find directions for writing a lay summary and an informed consent form in the
folder “Doing Ethnography: Process and Procedures.” You’ll also find a number of
student examples of consent forms and lay summaries.
September 30: Last Day to Drop
Week Six
Oct 3: Reciprocity and Why ethnography matters, cont. Read DM either “Sidewalk
Sleeping,” or “The Space Wars,” and also read “Conclusion” and “Afterword by Hakim.”
Be prepared to discuss Duneier’s conclusions, his reasons for including Hakim’s
afterword, and any “lessons” you’ve taken away as models for your own ethnographic
account. Write: In one or more double-spaced pages, describe one or more aspects of
your fieldsite: a room/space occupied by the group; (i.e. the environment that is typical);
the group/individuals you’ll be studying and where you will meet them; or a typical object
from your site and why it’s significant. Feel free to use first person. Note: At this point,
you should be visiting your site regularly and keeping field notes.
Oct 5: Reflecting on fieldnotes, finding themes. Bring in the fieldwork you’ve
collected thus far. We’ll talk about the process and write in class. We’ll also workshop
your site descriptions. A heads-up: Three pages of a transcribed interview will be due
on Oct. 12. Transcribing takes a lot of time, so you should set up your interview as soon
as possible, if you have not done so already.
Week Seven
Oct 11 (Monday classes meet on Tuesday): Interviewing and Incorporating
Interview Data. Read: Best: Introduction, Chapter One, Chapter Two. In the
introduction, note how Best situates her ethnographic project in a cultural context
(“American life and the car,” “Kids and Cars,” etc), how she defines “car culture,” and
how she defines her terms and her study. In Chapters One and Two, notice how Best
incorporates passages from her interview transcript into the chapter. Also notice how
she sets up scenes that will bring readers into the culture. Note: Groups will lead the
chapter discussions. No reading log is due but be prepared for a quiz. Please bring
book to class for discussion.
Oct 12: Workshopping interview transcripts. Interview someone relevant to your
site. Tape record the interview. Transcribe at least three pages of the interview
verbatim in a Q&A, single-spaced format. See directions for interviewing and
transcribing in the Wiki folder “Interviewing and Coding.” The pages you transcribe
should connect to themes you see emerging in your research thus far. Feel free to
transcribe sections from different parts of the tape but be sure to identify the context for
the sections you transcribe.
Week Eight
Oct 17: What’s the story? Finding themes. Coding your data. Read: Fast Cars
Chapter Three and skim the Appendix. Note especially the kinds of cultural analysis
Best does in each of the chapters. What is her “story”? In the appendix, note how
carefully she describes her research methods. Jot down questions you have for Prof.
Best when she comes to speak to our class. No log is due, but be prepared for a quiz
on the readings. Also due: What’s your story? Write: Integrative memo (2-3 singlespaced pages with headings) on your fieldwork thus far: What themes do you see
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emerging in your fieldwork? What data supports those themes? How do your interviews
thus far support those themes? What questions do you think you want to pursue related
to those themes? See Wiki folder “Doing Ethnography: Processes and Procedures” for
a directions and an example. Note: Go back and review the handouts on the wiki from
the early weeks of class on features of cultures and subcultures. You’ll need to include
a definition of culture in your final ethnography!
Oct 19: Tentative: Guest speaker sociologist Amy Best. Be prepared with questions
to ask Prof. Best about her work and yours.
Week Nine:
Oct 24: Thickening” the description: defining terms, using secondary research,
creating scenes. Read: Sonja Eberle’s chapter “What Makes a Puppet…?” on EReserve. Write: Describe in detail those aspects of your site—people, the setting, a
particular event, and/or an object—that support a point you want to make. Create a
scene, in other words, that will help to illustrate one of the themes you’ve identified in
your research. Include details from your fieldwork journal, data from interviews, and/or
secondary research. Experiment with incorporating quoted material from your interview
and/or overheard conversations at the site as you’ve seen Dunier and Best do in their
work. Think about this as one of the sections of your ethnography. You’ll workshop your
drafts in class.
Oct 26: Touching base and reflecting. Describe to your partner(s) where you are at
this point in your research: what you’ve done, seen, recorded, and noticed. Describe
themes you have already identified and how you’re working with those themes, other
themes you see emerging, and possible focal points for the ethnography (a unifying
theme). Ask yourself: What do I notice? Why do I notice what I notice? How can I
interpret what I notice? Why does this story matter? Your partner(s) should be asking
you questions to help you think about your research, and you should be taking notes on
your responses to their questions to guide you in revising and writing sections.
Week Ten
Oct 31: What’s the story? How a Table of Contents (TOC) can help you organize the
material. Read: Holly Foster’s “Bingo” on E-reserve. Notice how she organized her
sections. In class, with a partner, you’ll develop a very preliminary TOC for your own
study. I’ll ask you to reflect on your fieldwork thus far: Assumption you had going into
the field and what you actually found; what, if anything, has surprised, intrigued, and/or
disturbed you; and what you plan to do next. Write: Another section draft of your
ethnography.
Nov 2: The story gone wrong—a how-not-to-do-it ethnography. Read on E-reserve
“Ralph’s Sports Bar.” Be prepared to discuss (critique) her method, her focus, and her
analysis. Write: Transcribe additional segments from interviews that you plan to use in
your ethnography. If you have no further interviews to transcribe, write another section
of your ethnography based on material in your fieldnotes. Which ever of these you
choose to do, you should be sure that the writing supports themes you’re seeing in your
fieldwork.
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Week Eleven
Nov 7: This is a conference day. There will be no class. Assignment in preparation
for your conference with me: Compile your materials thus far into a portfolio to show
me. Bring any relevant writing about and materials from the site and note secondary
research that may be applicable. (Consider, for example, the kinds of research Dr. Best
used in addition to her own field work.) At the conference, you’ll talk with me about your
evolving ethnography, the themes you see emerging, possible focus/foci, and your key
informants and events. Together, we develop a preliminary TOC. We’ll also discuss the
section draft you turned in.
Nov 9: Conferences cont.
Week Twelve
Nov 14: What’s your story? Arrival stories: Traditional ethnographies usually include
an “arrival story,” that is, a story about your first time visiting the site as a researcher or,
depending upon your site, a story about how you are positioned in relationship to your
informants. Recall how Dunier and Best explained how they came to the culture and
discovered the questions they wanted to ask. Read on e-reserve “Prologue” and
“Introduction” to Women Escaping Violence by Elaine Lawless. We’ll discuss this
reading in class, so bring your printed-out copy. Questions: How much do you want to
tell about yourself in your arrival story? How do you handle the emotions you might feel
about a site?
Nov 16: Workshop day: Arrival story and “What’s the story?” Write your arrival story.
(Two or more double-spaced pages.) Bring a copy of arrival story to workshop, your
table of contents, and any other sections you’d like to workshop with your group.
Week Thirteen
Nov 21: What’s the story you’re telling? Write: New section due to workshop and to
turn in. Note: By this point, you should have turned in at least four sections of the
ethnography. : Read around! (Explained in class)
Nov 23: No Class. Thanksgiving Break.
Week Fourteen
Nov 28: Writing it up, cont. Assignment: Integrative memo due. The memo should
include a tentative table of contents, an explanation of the material still to be included in
sections to “thicken” the description as well as sections still to be written. See
explanation in wiki folder “Doing Ethnography.” Along with your integrative memo, turn
in drafts of any new sections you want to show me.
Nov 30: Workshopping and editing sections. You should bring any new sections for
your partner to read along with sections you’d like to have your partner(s) edit.
Week Fifteen
Dec 5: Why the story matters. Your “So what?” Analysis and conclusions. How have
you answered the questions you posed in the arrival story? Assignment: Continue
reviewing and editing ethnography.
Dec 7: Compiling the portfolio.
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Dec 14: Exam Day: 10:30-1:15
We will not have an exam in this class; however, you will give a short presentation on
your ethnographic project and then we’ll spend time reading one another’s portfolios.
Assignment: Portfolio and all accompanying material due.
Criteria for evaluating portfolios:

The portfolio provides evidence that the ethnographer has been conducting a
systematic inquiry into the culture, as seen by the following:
o Field data gathered from multiple visits and/or interviews with informants;
o Log with notes on secondary and primary research and with evidence that
writer has made analytical connections between secondary and primary
research;
o Collections of artifacts gathered from the fieldwork site, some of which
may be digitally represented in the final ethnography itself.

The final ethnographic study tells a focused, vivid, analytical and ethically sound
story about the culture, showing clearly what makes this group a culture, as seen
by:
o careful selection of observation and interview data to support and clarify
points the writer is making about the culture as well as to suggest larger
theories that might explain the culture;
o the incorporation of observation and interview data in a way that presents
informants’ words and meanings ethically, fully, and coherently;
o a balanced approach to both showing and telling about the culture with all
details being relevant to the story of the culture that the writer is telling;
o the incorporation of research and images (optional) that support the
arguments with all images appropriately placed and captioned;
o adequate analysis of all of the above to understand the significance of the
research in terms of the culture the writer is studying (In other words, So
what?)
o a structure with a clear introduction to the culture, headings, subheadings,
transitions, captions, and a logical conclusion; includes a definition of
culture as we’ve been defining it in class and in the readings
o reflections on the fieldwork process throughout the ethnographic story,
demonstrating the writer’s ability to make thoughtful observations about
the ethnographic project and connections among written, visual, and
secondary data that’s been gathered.
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