Study Guide: Diverse Learners, Students with Disabilities, English Language Learners
You may find an introductory textbook to be valuable in your study. You may have a textbook from your course work.
The following are some useful textbooks, and you may find these in the Lehman Library. Keep in mind, however, that there are quite a few people
taking these tests.
Bos, C., Vaughn, S. (2012). Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems
8e.with MyEducationLab. Princeton: Merrill Publishing.
Echevarria, Vogt & Short. (2013. Making Content Comprehensible for English Language Learners:
The SIOP Model 4E. New York: Pearson. ISBN-10: 0132689723
Hardman, M. (2008). Human Exceptionality; School, Community, And Family, 9th Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin. (ISBN-10:
0618920420)
Heward , W.L.; Orlansky, M.D. (2002). Exceptional Children (Sixth Ed.). NY: Merrill.
Lerner, J. (2009). Learning Disabilities And Related Mild Disabilities. NY: Houghton Mifflin Co.
McCarney, S., Wunderlich, K., Bauer, A. Third Edition (2006). The pre-referral intervention manual. Columbia, Mo.:
Hawthorne Educational Services.
The following questions and answers highlight some of the topics that you should study. It is, by no means, a complete list. Each
section is followed by useful websites.
1-THE PURPOSE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
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When is special education needed? How do we know?
Special education is individualized purposeful intervention designed to help students with disabilities become more
independent and successful in school and society. Special education is needed when the physical attributes and/or learning
abilities of students differ from the norm to such an extent that an individual educational program is required to meet their
needs. How is the need for special education determined? Children in need of special education are usually identified by
parents, teachers, and/or assessment instruments. When a child is not progressing as expected and not responding to
attempts at remediation, multifactored nondiscriminatory assessments can be administered to determine eligibility for
special education services.
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If disability labels do not tell us what and how to teach, why are they used in special education?
Some educators argue that a system of classifying children with exceptionalities is a prerequisite to providing the special
programs these children require. Labeling allows advocates to make the needs of exceptional children more visible to the
public, helps professionals communicate with one another, and may lead to a protective response from peers. Other
educators propose alternative approaches to classifying children with exceptionalities that focus on educationally relevant
variables, like the curriculum and skill areas that they need to learn.
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Why have court cases and federal legislation been required to ensure that children with disabilities receive a free
appropriate education?
Prior to 1975, schools were allowed to deny enrollment to children with disabilities. When schools began to accept children with
disabilities, they often attended isolated classrooms away from the typically developing children. Providing equal educational
opportunities and services for children with disabilities closely parallels the struggle by historically underrepresented groups to
gain access to and enjoy the rights to which all Americans are entitled. An awareness of the barriers that have deprived these
children of equal educational opportunity is important. Judicial and legislative action has been necessary to establish universal
rights for children with disabilities. Our work as special educators is most often performed in local schools, but it is supported and
guided by federal and state law.
How can a special educator provide all three kinds of intervention—preventive, remedial, and compensatory—on
behalf of an individual child?
Special educators must provide the kinds of intervention that will be most beneficial for each individual learner.
Preventative interventions can keep potential problems from becoming disabilities. Remediation helps to eliminate the
effects of a disability, and compensatory intervention allows a student to perform a skill despite his or her disability.
Preventative efforts are relatively new, and their effects will not likely be felt for many years. In the meantime, we must
count on remedial and compensatory efforts to help people with disabilities achieve fuller and more independent lives.
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In what ways do general and special education differ? Are those differences important? If so, why and how?
Ultimately, teaching is what special education is most about. But the same can be said of all of education. Teachers with a
special education certification are specially trained to do special things with special students. Special education can
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sometimes be differentiated from general education by its curriculum—that is, by what is taught. Some children need
intensive, systematic instruction to learn skills that typically developing children acquire without instruction. Special
education also differs from general education by its use of specialized, or adapted, materials and methods. Other features
that often distinguish special education teaching from instruction in general education are its precision, focus, intensity, and
frequency of student progress measures. Special education can sometimes be identified (but not defined) by where it takes
place. Although the majority of children with disabilities spend most of the school day in general education classrooms,
others are in separate classrooms or separate residential and day schools. The differences between general and special
education are important. General education is an entitlement for all students. Special education is reserved for students
with disabilities who need special education and related services to perform to their optimal capacity.
Websites
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National Dissemination Center for Children With Disabilities
o http://www.nichcy.org
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Council for Exceptional Children
o http://www.cec.sped.org
Division of Developmental Disabilities (DSHS) Resource Links
o http://wwwl.dshs.wa.gov/ddd/links.shtml
Special Education News and Resources
o http://www.specialednews.com/
U.S. Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services
o http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html
WrightsLaw
o http://www.wrightslaw.com/
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2-SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES
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What are the intended functions of prereferral intervention?
Although IDEA does not require prereferral intervention, local educational agencies may use a certain percentage of IDEA
funds for prereferral purposes. The intended function of prereferral intervention is to provide early intervening services, in
the form of scientifically validated instruction, for students who have not been identified as needing special education or
related services but who need additional academic and behavioral support to succeed in general education environments.
Prereferral teams help teachers devise and implement interventions for students who are experiencing academic or
behavioral difficulties in the general education classroom. Prereferral intervention is intended to reduce the frequency of
identifying children for special education whose learning or behavioral problems are the result of not receiving appropriate
instruction rather than a disability.
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What does the disproportionate representation of students from diverse cultural and linguistic groups in special
education say about the field?
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Identification and classification for special education should be based entirely on the presence of a disabling condition that
adversely affects the child’s educational performance. Disproportionate representation is problematic if it means that
children have been wrongly placed in special education programs that deny them appropriate educational interventions that
match their full learning capacities, stigmatize them, or segregate them. Disproportionate representation is also a problem
if it means students with disabilities are overlooked because of their membership in a racial or ethnic minority group,
resulting in their being denied access to needed special education. The continued disproportionate representation of
students from diverse cultural and linguistic groups in special education means that the field must actively work to
recognize and combat cultural and ethnic bias in the special education planning and placement process.
How do collaboration and teaming impact the effectiveness of special education?
An appropriate education for students with disabilities can best be accomplished when both general and special education
teachers and other service providers work together to provide high-quality instruction for all children. The educational
needs of exceptional children cannot be resolved by any single individual or professional discipline. Children with
disabilities can benefit most from the collective and collaborative efforts of all individuals charged with the responsibility of
educating them.
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How should the quality of a student’s individualized education program (IEP) be judged?
The individualized education program (IEP) is a collaborative effort of the members of an IEP team and provides a measure
of accountability for teachers and schools. A high-quality IEP accurately identifies the child’s present levels of performance
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based on direct assessment information and determines appropriate future goals that are ambitious but realistic. The school
district is legally bound to provide the special education and related services identified in the IEP, and the school must be
able to document that it made a conscious and systematic effort to achieve those goals. Whether a particular school or
educational program is effective will be judged by how well it is able to help the child meet the goals set forth in his or her
IEP.
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Is the least restrictive environment always the general education classroom? Why?
The general education classroom is often but not always the least restrictive environment. The general education
classroom is the starting point for the IEP team’s discussion of placement. Judgments about the restrictiveness of a given
setting must always be made in relationship to the individual needs of the student. The general education classroom can
promote or restrict a child’s educational opportunities and skill development depending on the quality of the learning
opportunities the child receives. No setting is, in and of itself, restrictive or nonrestrictive. It is the needs of the child and
the degree to which a particular setting meets those needs that define restrictiveness. Restrictiveness is a feature of place.
However, the physical place in which children receive their education will rarely be the only variable that determines the
appropriateness of their educational opportunities.
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What elements must be in place for a student with disabilities to receive an appropriate education in inclusive
classrooms?
Inclusion is the process of integrating children with disabilities into the academic and social activities of local schools and
general education classrooms. Studies have shown that well-planned, carefully conducted inclusion can be generally
effective with students of all ages and degrees of disability. In order for an inclusive placement to be successful,
collaboration and teaming are crucial. Professionals who are well trained in inclusive practices can work together to solve
learning and behavior problems, design appropriate instructional arrangements, monitor progress, and deliver effective
instruction.
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In what ways has special education been most successful? What are the field’s greatest shortcomings and
challenges?
The field of special education has made substantial progress toward fulfilling the promise of free appropriate education for
all children with disabilities. The effects of IDEA have had far-reaching effects. Instead of excluding children as in the past,
schools are now seeking the most appropriate ways to include children with disabilities. In addition to academic instruction,
schools also provide wide-ranging services to children from diverse backgrounds and with different learning needs.
Implementation of IDEA has also brought the problems of inadequate funding, inadequate teacher training and support,
and opposition to including children with disabilities in general education classrooms. The field of special education will
continue to face the challenges of providing the best instruction for each child with disabilities.
Writing Instructional Objectives
Short-term instructional objectives consist of the antecedent conditions for performing a skill, an observable behavior, and criteria
for mastery. Use the following guidelines when examining and writing instructional objectives:
1.
State the conditions (e.g., when presented with a list of 50 sight words, 10 multiplication problems, five paper cut-outs of shapes,
a ruler and five items to measure, a paragraph written at the third grade level).
2.
State what the child will do in observable terms (read aloud, solve, answer, point to, identify, spell, compute, recite, state, edit).
Do not use terms such as “understand,” “appreciate,” “know how to,” “learn,” and “increase knowledge,” as these behaviors are
not directly observable.
3.
State the criteria or level of mastery (e.g., 90% accuracy). The criteria set for each objective will depend upon the student’s
ability level, the difficulty of the task, and the proficiency demanded by the child’s natural environment (e.g., you would
probably want the child to be able to safely cross the street to 100% accuracy).
Select one of the following goals, and create five instructional objectives related to reaching that goal. The student will:
read and comprehend text written at the fifth grade level.
solve addition and subtraction problems up to four digits with or without regrouping.
apply the basic concepts of measurement.
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demonstrate effective written expression skills at the fourth grade level.
demonstrate basic computer and word processing skills.
state and follow safety rules for home and school.
demonstrate organization skills.
Websites
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ABC Teach
www.abcteach.com
Assessment
http://www.4teachers.org/profdev/index.php?profdevid=as
Busy Teacher’s Cafe
http://www.busyteacherscafe.com/
Classroom Connect
http://corporate.classroom.com/
Discovery Education
Lesson Plans
http://www.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/free-lesson-plans/
Assessment and Rubrics
http://school.discoveryeducation.com/schrockguide/assess.html
Education World
http://www.education-world.com
Office of Special Education Intervention Techniques
http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/cise/ose/information/interventions.html
Focus on Effectiveness: Integrating Technology into Research-Based Strategies
http://www.netc.org/focus/
3-COLLABORATION with WITH PARENTS AND FAMILIES
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What can a teacher learn from the family of a child with disabilities?
In addition to being the most powerful and pervasive influence in a young child’s life, the family of a child with disabilities
also knows the child best. Parents and families are the best sources of information about the child and his or her own
strengths and needs in coping. What teachers can learn from the parents and families of children with disabilities is as
varied as the children themselves. Some parents will have a great deal to offer by providing a deeper understanding of the
overall strengths and needs of their child, identifying potential reinforcers, helping to identify meaningful instructional
objectives, and supporting extra practice of skills at home. Other parents may be less involved in their child’s education but
can still provide important insight about the needs of their child.
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In what ways might a child’s disability affect the family system and parents’ roles?
The birth of a child with a disability is an intense and traumatic event for the family. Most parents go through an
adjustment process that begins with a period of emotional crisis, followed by alternating feelings of anger, guilt, depression,
and finally acceptance. Even though this is a common pattern, teachers should refrain from expecting parents or family
members to exhibit any kind of “typical” reaction. However, almost all parents and family members can be helped by
sensitive and supportive friends and professionals. Teachers should also be aware that the birth of a child with a disability
also extends the parents’ roles of caregiver, provider, teacher, counselor, behavior support specialist, and advocate; and that
the child’s disability affects the family in different ways at different stages in the life cycle.
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How can teachers who are not parents of children with disabilities communicate effectively and meaningfully with
parents of exceptional children?
Teachers who are not the parents of children with disabilities cannot know the 24-hour reality of being in this role.
Nonetheless, they should strive for an awareness and understanding of how a child with special needs affects (and is
affected by) the family system. The teacher’s increased awareness of the challenges faced by a family of a child with
disabilities is the first step to effective and meaningful parent-teacher communication. Frequent communication with
families is crucial for meeting the needs of the child. Teachers can communicate effectively with parents by accepting
parents’ statements, listening actively, questioning effectively, communicating encouragement, and staying focused on the
child’s education program and progress. Teachers should also be aware of and avoid the barriers to communication such as
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treating parents as vulnerable clients, keeping professional distance, blaming the parents for their child’s condition, and
treating parents as adversaries.
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How can a teacher communicate effectively and meaningfully with families from diverse cultures?
Cultural differences between teachers and families of children with disabilities can become barriers to family involvement.
Teachers who do not recognize and respect cultural differences are prone to biased and faulty judgments that weaken the
partnership between school and home. In order to communicate effectively with families from diverse cultures, the first step
is becoming culturally responsive by developing a general self-awareness and appreciation of diversity. This process begins
with a thorough understanding and appreciation of one’s own culture but must then be extended to an understanding,
appreciation, and respect of the culture of others. Teachers must also work toward understanding how differing values and
belief systems may influence the perspectives of the family.
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What forms of home–school communication are likely to be most effective?
No single method of communication will be effective or even appropriate with every parent and family. Teachers should ask
parents which methods of communication they prefer.
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How much parent involvement is enough?
Parents can be involved in their child’s education in many ways, such as implementing home-based parent tutoring or
participating in parent education and support groups. In general, the more involved the parents are in their child’s
education, the better. However, expectations for participation beyond the family’s capabilities can cause feelings of failure
and stress. The Mirror Model for Parental Involvement recognizes that parents have a great deal to offer, as well as a need
to receive services from special educators. All parents should be expected to provide and obtain information and be active
participants in IEP planning and evaluating. Fewer parents will be able to participate in or contribute to workshops and
extended parent education groups.
Websites
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Council for Exceptional Children Division for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (DDEL) Exceptional Learners
http://www.cec.sped.org/Content/NavigationMenu/AboutCEC/Communities/Divisions/DivisDiv_for_Culturally_and_
Linguistically_Diverse_Exceptional_Learner
4-INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
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What are the implications for special education in viewing intellectual disabilities as an inherent trait within the
individual or as a state of functioning that reflects the fit between a person’s capacities and the contexts in which
the person is to function?
The traditional and still most commonly used approach to defining and classifying intellectual disabilities views the condition as
an inherent trait within the individual. In this view, the disability is classified according to levels of severity of the cognitive
deficit or as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Identification and classification require the disability to present during the
developmental period. They require that an IQ test be given as well as a test of adaptive behavior.
The AAIDD provides recommendations for functionally classifying intellectual disabilities according to needed supports. This
approach is much more useful for planning and delivering appropriate special education services than classifying intellectual
disabilities based on IQ scores. Needed supports are identified and classified by an interdisciplinary team according to four
levels of intensities: intermittent, limited, extensive, and pervasive. This system reflects the idea that expression of the
impairments is strongly affected by the life arrangements of the individual.
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What should teachers know about IQ tests and the assessment of intellectual functioning?
Teachers should know that even though the major intelligence tests are among the most carefully constructed and researched
psychological assessment available, they are still far from perfect and have advantages and disadvantages. Teachers should be
aware that intelligence is a hypothetical construct. Such tests measure only how a child performs at one point in time on the
items included on the test. Intelligence testing is not an exact science. Intelligence tests can be culturally biased. An IQ score
should not be the sole basis for decision making concerning special education services. The score can change significantly and
cannot be used to determine IEP objectives.
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Which is more important in determining a person’s level of adaptive functioning: intellectual capability or a
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supportive environment?
Both intellectual capability and a supportive environment are important factors in the level of adaptive functioning of a person
with ID. However, it is imperative that teachers not have low expectations for the person who is intellectually disabled. With
the correct level of support, many people with ID are able to lead productive lives and achieve things many thought not
possible. Moreover, words such as helpless, unteachable, dependent, and childlike are often associated with people with intellectual
disabilities. Less often are people with intellectual disabilities described with positive characteristics, such as hardworking,
capable, independent, and productive. Yet when supported properly, children and adults with intellectual disabilities are just that:
hardworking, capable, independent, and productive members of classrooms and communities. Some individuals with intellectual
disabilities, certainly, are not as capable as others, but this same statement can be made about any group of people.
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How are the characteristics of students with intellectual disabilities relevant to planning and delivering
instruction?
The individual characteristics of the student are extremely relevant when planning instruction. Not all students labeled with
intellectual disabilities have the same abilities or interests. When planning and delivering instruction, a teacher must design
each student’s program to fit his or her unique needs.
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What factors might account for the wide differences in the prevalence of intellectual disabilities within the schoolage population across states and school districts?
Intellectual disabilities is a complex concept that is difficult to define. It involves significant deficits in both intellectual
functioning and adaptive behavior—both of which are difficult to measure. Even the slightest rewording in the definition can
influence who is considered intellectually disabled and, consequently, who is eligible for special education services.
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Why has the prevention of intellectual disabilities proven so difficult?
Great progress has been made in identifying the causes of ID. Likewise, great advances in preventative medicine have occurred
that help identify and treat high-risk pregnancies. However, for a significant percentage of children diagnosed with ID, no
known cause can be identified. Huge advances in research are needed to further investigate biomedical causes of ID. In addition,
approximately 50% of students identified with ID fall in the “mild” range. For many of those children, evidence suggests that
their disabilities can be traced to factors in the environment such as low levels of social engagement, child abuse, and neglect.
Much more needs to be done to provide parents of children at risk for ID with training and support.
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What should curriculum goals for students with intellectual disabilities emphasize?
The goals will differ depending on the individual characteristics of the student. Regardless, functional skills that will lead to the
child’s independence in the community and workplace should be the focus of most educational programs for individuals with
intellectual disabilities.
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What are the most important features of effective instruction for students with intellectual disabilities?
There are six features to effective teaching: (a) precise definition and task analysis of the new skill to be learned, (b) direct and
frequent measurement of the student’s performance, (c) frequent opportunities for active student responding, (d) immediate and
systematic feedback, (e) procedures for achieving the transfer of stimulus control from instructional cues or prompts to
naturally occurring stimuli, and (f) strategies for promoting the generalization and maintenance of newly learned skills to
different, nontraining situations and environments.
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What is needed to make education for a student with intellectual disabilities appropriate in a general education
classroom?
Simply placing a child with disabilities into a general education classroom does not guarantee that student will be accepted
socially or receive the most appropriate and needed instructional programming. Factors which may determine the success of an
inclusive placement in a general education classroom include the child’s level of functioning, the teacher’s ability to individualize
instruction and make appropriate accommodations, the degree of support and collaboration with other professionals, the extent
of parent involvement, and the level of peer maturity. Recent developments in instructional technology provide evidence that
individuals with intellectual disabilities can learn skills previously thought beyond their capability.
Websites
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American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
http://www.aaidd.org
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Publications
American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
http://www.aaiddjournal.org/
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The Arc
http://www.thearc.org
The Council for Exceptional Children Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
http://daddcec.org/Home.aspx
5- LEARNING DISABILITIES
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Why has the concept of learning disabilities proven so difficult to define?
There are many different kinds of academic and social skills students are expected to learn during their formal education. In
addition, there is a wide range of individual differences among learners in any given classroom. Thus, no large group of children
can be expected to learn the same skill at exactly the same rate or to the exact same level of proficiency. So, in one sense, all
students could be said to be learning disabled in relation to some level of “standard” performance. Primarily for these reasons
(among others), experts in the field of learning disabilities have struggled to provide a coherent definition that excludes those
who should be excluded and includes those who should be included. Moreover, the definition itself provides the classroom
teacher with little useful information about how or what to teach a particular student. Therefore, the majority of educational
professionals’ efforts should be devoted to the development and delivery of effective instruction rather than debates over
definitions.
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What characteristic encompasses all students with learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are considered by some to be a school-defined phenomenon because the disability is most commonly
exhibited through difficulties in mastering academic skills. Although learning disabilities are often specific to certain kinds of
skills, many individuals have difficulty learning across a wide range of settings and situations. However, the fundamental,
defining characteristic of students with learning disabilities is specific and significant achievement discrepancy in the presence
of adequate overall intelligence.
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What factors might account for the huge increase in the prevalence of students identified with learning disabilities
since the category was officially recognized in the mid–1970s?
Learning disabilities is often called the “invisible disability” because there are no physical signs associated with the diagnosis.
Moreover, there is no standard, universally accepted definition of what constitutes a learning disability. In addition, the causes
of a specified learning disability are often unknown. These are all likely contributing factors to the increase in prevalence of the
disorder.
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Are the achievement deficits of most students diagnosed with learning disabilities the result of neurological
impairment or poor instruction?
In most cases, the causes of learning problems are unknown. Science has not progressed to the point where one can claim that a
specific learning problem is the result of an organic defect in the brain. In addition, evidence shows that the learning problems
of many children can be remediated by intensive, explicit, and systematic instruction. At this point, it is probably best for
teachers not to focus on the suspected causes of whatever learning problem a student is presenting with, and instead focus on
the methods under which the student best learns.
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What can a student’s responsiveness to evidence-based instruction reveal about the need and focus of special
education?
In the RTI model only students who consistently show learning problems in spite of (a) primary intervention consisting of
evidence-based curriculum in a general education program and (b) targeted interventions for a fixed duration of time will be
identified for special education services. Thus, the focus of special education will be targeted at whatever deficit the child is
showing. In theory there will be a lot fewer children identified for special education, and those who are identified will need
intense and specific interventions.
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How can academic tool skills and learning strategies relate to each other?
Learning strategies are procedures a student follows when planning, executing, and evaluating performance on a task and its
outcomes. In order to become proficient in the use of learning strategies, students will need at least some proficiency with
knowledge and application of basic academic skills. Learning strategies can help a student to engage in academic tool skills by
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organizing information, seeing relationships between facts and events, and providing explicit instruction.
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What skills are most important to the success of an elementary-age student with learning disabilities in the
general education classroom? for a secondary student?
Obviously, learning to read and write and performing mathematical computations at or near grade level are important skills for
children at any level of education. In addition, skills such as getting along with peers, learning to follow rules, coming to class
prepared, and turning in work on time are important at all grade levels. So in essence, many of the same skills are important in
elementary and secondary grade levels. However, in the secondary grades, student self-management becomes more important
than in earlier grades.
Websites
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice
http://teachingld.org/pages/ldrp
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LDOnline
http://www.ldonline.org
Learning Disabilities Association of America
http://www.ldanatl.org
Council for Learning Disabilities
http://www.cldinternational.org
6-EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
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What are the points of agreement and disagreement between the definition of emotional disturbance in the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the definition of emotional or behavioral disorders by the
Council for Children with Behavior Disorders?
Both of the definitions outline a pattern of behavior that adversely affects educational performance, is more than episodic or
temporary, and includes mental illness such as schizophrenia. The IDEA definition requires that a student not be “socially
maladjusted”; conversely, the CCBD definition makes no such distinction. In addition, the CCBD definition places the behavior
problems within the context of school, age, culture, and ethnic norms. Finally, the CCBD definition states that the disorder may
coexist with other disorders.
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Whose disability is more severe: the acting-out, antisocial child or the withdrawn child?
When attempting to determine the relative severity of a disorder, it is necessary to examine the individual child and the extent
to which the behavior pattern interferes with his or her ability to function. Acting-out children tend to be disruptive. Although
withdrawn children may not be disruptive, their behavior also interferes with their learning. Acting-out and withdrawn
children can be equally disabled because both encounter problems with the acquisition of academic, social, personal, and
vocational skills. From an identification perspective, withdrawn children have the potential to become more disabled because
they are less likely to be identified and to receive treatment.
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What factors might account for the disparity between the number of children receiving special education under
the emotional disturbance category and researchers’ estimates of the prevalence of emotional or behavioral
disorders?
First, many children with emotional or behavioral disorders are served under other categories. Second, many children with
emotional or behavioral disorders either drop out of school or become immersed in the juvenile justice system. Finally and
perhaps most importantly, in many respects an emotional or behavioral disorder is a socially constructed phenomenon, and as a
result, states and LEAs interpret criterion for eligibility of services differently. Small changes in the wording of assessment
results can influence whether a person suspected of having an emotional or behavioral disorder receives services. As a result,
many children who exhibit internalizing behavior patterns may not get the services they need, or a young child with mild
symptoms might not get services until the symptoms have progressed.
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How can research findings about the cumulative interplay of risk factors for behavior problems in adolescence and
adulthood guide the development and implementation of prevention programs?
As with most disabilities, a key factor in changing the trajectory of a child’s life is early identification and treatment. The
greater the number of risk factors and the longer a child’s exposure to them, the greater the probability that the child will
experience negative outcomes. Therefore, the early identification of risk factors provides a means to assess and treat behavior
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problems before they reach a tertiary level.
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Although screening and assessment tools for emotional or behavioral disorders are becoming increasingly
sophisticated and efficient, schools seldom use them. Why?
In many cases, children with emotional and behavior disorders identify themselves through their antisocial behavior. However,
not systematically using assessment tools may cause LEAs to delay treatment, misdiagnose, or not diagnose some children,
especially those with internalizing problems.
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What are the most important skills for teachers of students with emotional or behavioral disorders?
Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1999) describe children with emotional and behavioral problems as “tough kids.” Perhaps no other
label describes them so well. Many of them have few friends and often behave in such a persistently obnoxious manner that they
seem to invite negative responses from peers and adults. However, anyone who has ever taught “tough kids” will tell you that
they can be bright, creative, energetic, and even fun to be around under the right circumstances. All teachers, including those
who teach students with EBD, must be skilled in delivering effective instruction so that students will attain mastery of
important academic and social skills. The most effective teachers will create positive, supportive environments that promote and
maintain student success. Teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders must have good problem-solving skills
and be prepared for the challenge of managing and changing disruptive behaviors.
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Why might the inclusion of children with emotional or behavioral disorders in general education classrooms be
more (or less) intensely debated than the inclusion of children with other disabilities?
The answer to this question hinges on the definition of least restrictive environment. The behavioral excess of some children
identified with EBD may actually make the general education setting a more restrictive placement if the student is continually
removed from the setting. Many students with EBD require a level of planning, coordination with others, and support that are
often unavailable in the general education setting. However, with the advent of schoolwide positive behavioral support, there is
cause for optimism that more children at risk for EBD will be served effectively in the general education setting.
•
What are the largest current impediments to children with emotional or behavioral disorders receiving the most
effective education possible?
Many advocates of children with EBD see the need for revising the federal definition so that all students who exhibit emotional
and behavioral problems can be served. Relatedly, early identification and proactive prevention must occur at a greater level
than what is currently available. Lastly, closing the gap to what is known about preventing and treating EBD and actual
educational practice must occur.
Websites
•
•
•
•
Council for Children With Behavioral Disorders http://www.ccbd.net/
Publications
Behavior Disorders
http://www.ccbd.net/publication/behavioraldisorders
Beyond Behavior
http://www.ccbd.net/publication/beyondbehavior
Newsletter
http://www.ccbd.net/publication/newsletter
IRIS Center
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resources.html
Positive Behavioral Support
http://www.pbis.org/schoolwide.htm
National Alliance on Mental Illness
http://www.nami.org/
7-AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
•
What are the defining features—the clinical symptoms—for a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)?
The disorder is defined as developmental disabilities affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction. The
disorder is generally evident before age three. Children with autism sometimes engage in repetitive activities and stereotyped
movements, are resistant to environmental change or changes in daily routine, and display unusual responses to sensory
experiences. Children with serious emotional disturbance are excluded from this disability category.
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Study Guide: Diverse Learners, Students with Disabilities, English Language Learners
•
How might some of the characteristic behaviors of autism spectrum disorders become assets for the child as a
learner?
Although children diagnosed with ASD share a number of common behavioral characteristics, it is important to recognize they
are often more different than alike. It is therefore imperative for a teacher to determine what the child is good at doing. For
example, some children with ASD may not respond well to verbal directions but are very good at following written directions.
For those children it is probably best to give written directions. Other children may be very good at following a set routine but
have trouble when the routine is changed. For those children it may be better to start each school day with a set routine and
slowly make changes as the school year continues. Some students with ASD develop intense interests in particular toys or
activities. A teacher can use these interests to motivate the student to learn important social skills. These are just three
examples of the myriad ways in which a teacher may make accommodations based on a child’s strengths.
•
What factors might account for the enormous increase in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in recent
years?
Probably the biggest single factor that has contributed to the rise in the prevalence of ASD is improvements in assessment
procedures that can diagnose the disorder at an earlier age. Before these improvements, a child with ASD may have been
misdiagnosed or diagnosed later in life. Because of the improvements in assessment and screening, the public has become more
aware of the disorder. A third factor that may contribute to the rising prevalence is the improvement and greater availability of
educational services, particularly applied behavior analysis.
•
How have etiologic theories and the search for causes of autism changed from the first reports of the disability to
today?
Not so long ago the suspected cause of autism was thought to be uncaring or unloving parents. This theory has totally and
utterly been debunked. Today we are still no further to finding the cause of autism; however, the search for causes has shown
that autism may have a biological origin in the form of abnormal brain development or neurochemistry. Other unsubstantiated
theories include reactions to common vaccinations and allergic reactions in early childhood.
•
Why are research and development of tools for early screening and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders so
critical?
Like most potentially debilitating conditions, the earlier the condition is diagnosed, the earlier treatment can begin, and often
the prognosis for a more typical life is improved. This appears to be critical for children diagnosed with ASD. Early, intensive,
behavior analytic–based instruction has been scientifically demonstrated to improve communication, language, and social skills
to such an extent that some children with ASD have been able to succeed in general education classrooms.
•
What skills are most important for teachers of children with autism spectrum disorders?
Teaching children with ASD requires a teacher to be well organized, task oriented, attuned to small but cumulative
improvements in skill acquisition, and well versed in effective teaching strategies. However, the same can be said about teaching
any child. Nevertheless, because children diagnosed with ASD can be among the most difficult to teach, these skills are
particularly important for teachers of children with ASD.
•
What features of an educational environment (a general education classroom, resource room, or special class) will
enable a child with autism spectrum disorders to benefit optimally from placement in that setting?
Just as a teacher should be well organized, a well-organized classroom is necessary for students with ASD. In addition, the
classroom should be a place where there are optimal opportunities for teaching communication skills and providing varied
opportunities to promote independence.
•
Why are fads and unproven interventions so prevalent in the education and treatment of children with autism?
It has been said that education proceeds from revolution rather than evolution. What that means is that unproven fads have
been a part of education for a very long time. Unfortunately, this is especially true for the treatment of ASD. Because the causes
of ASD are poorly understood, seemingly plausible theories for treatment are presented in the absence of proof. If these theories
are presented by credible authority figures and supplemented with testimonials, parents and educators are likely to give the
unproven treatment credence. Because of the characteristics and severity of the disorder, hope and hype often replace reason
and evidence when determining what is and what is not an effective treatment. The best way teachers can protect themselves
from fad treatments is to ask for the data on the treatment’s effectiveness for children like the ones they teach, and evaluate the
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believability independently from those promoting the treatment.
Websites
•
•
•
•
Association for Science in Autism Treatment
http://asatonline
Autism Society of America
http://www.autism-society.org
Asperger’s Disorder Home page
http://www.aspergers.com
The Council for Exceptional Children Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
http://daddcec.org/Home.aspx
8-COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
• How are speech and language impairments related to one another and to typical language development?
Language is a formalized code used by a group of people to communicate with one another. Each language has rules of
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics that describe how users put sounds and ideas together to convey
meaning. Speech is the oral production of language. It is the fastest and most efficient method of communication by language,
and it is also one of the most complex and difficult human endeavors. A speech impairment deals with some problem in the
production of oral language. A language impairment deals with some problem in the way a person is able to communicate.
•
What types of communication disorders might statements such as “The dogs runned home” and “That foop is
dood” signal?
The problems likely signal an error in articulation of speech. However, children’s words and sentences often differ from adult
forms while children are learning language. As their language develops, children will gradually replace incorrect word
pronunciations and sentence structures with acceptable adult forms of language. Whether or not the child’s language errors are
age-appropriate, it is important that the teacher respond to the child’s message first before attempting to correct the errors.
There are a variety of approaches for treating speech and language problems, but speech-language pathologists are increasingly
employing naturalistic interventions to help children develop and use language skills.
•
How are causes of speech and language impairments classified?
Communication disorders that are organic are attributed to a specific physical cause. Most communication disorders, however,
do not have a known physical origin. Environmental influences, such as the child’s opportunity to learn speech and language,
are thought to be the major causes of many communication disorders.
•
What are the major components of a comprehensive evaluation to detect the presence and extent of a
communication disorder?
The first line of assessment involves universal screening and teacher observations. If a child is suspected of having a
communication disorder, a speech-language pathologist conducts more systematic tests. These often include articulation and
hearing tests, auditory discrimination tests, phonological processing tests, vocabulary tests, written and spoken language
samples, and observation conducted in natural settings. After the data from the mutlifactored tests are gathered, the speech and
language pathologist (SLP) determines if the child has a communication disorder and the extent to which the disorder interferes
with the child’s educational progress.
•
What are the basic goals and common elements of effective interventions for speech-sound errors? for language
disorders?
A general goal of specialists in communication disorders is to help the child speak as clearly and pleasantly as possible so that a
listener’s attention will focus on the child’s message rather than how it is said. The goals of therapy for articulation problems
are acquisition of correct speech sound(s), generalization of the sound(s) to all speaking settings and contexts (especially the
classroom), and maintenance of the correct sound(s) after therapy has ended. The goal of therapy for phonological errors is to
help the child identify the error pattern(s) and gradually produce more linguistically appropriate sound patterns. Treatments
for language disorders are extremely varied. Some programs focus on precommunication activities that encourage the child to
explore and that make the environment conducive to the development of receptive and expressive language. A wide variety of
techniques are used to build students’ vocabulary. Educators should use naturally occurring intervention formats to expose
children with language disorders to a wide range of stimuli, experiences, contexts, and people.
•
What is augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), and who can it help?
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Study Guide: Diverse Learners, Students with Disabilities, English Language Learners
Augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) refers to a diverse set of strategies and methods to assist individuals who
cannot meet their communication needs through speech or writing. ACC entails three components: a representational symbol
set or vocabulary; a means for selecting the symbols; and a means for transmitting the symbols. Each of the three components
of ACC may be unaided or aided.
•
How does the role of the speech-language pathologist change as a function of the educational setting in which a
child with communication disorders is served?
The SLP is the person whose primary job responsibility is providing therapeutic services. The SLP’s role in providing these
services can range from primary service provider to consultant, depending on the nature and setting of the intervention. The
models that the SLP designs to provide services can range from structured 1:1 drills in a pull-out session, to group pull-out
sessions where natural language contexts are used, to collaborative consultation in classroom-based sessions where a teacher is
leading the intervention.
Websites
•
•
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
http://www.asha.org/
The Council for Exceptional Children Division for Children With Communicative Disabilities and Deafness
http://www.dcdd.us/
9 DEAFNESS AND HEARING LOSS
•
What distinguishes a child who is deaf from a child who is hard of hearing in terms of the primary sensory mode
used for learning and communication?
Children who are deaf may be able to perceive some sound but are unable to use their hearing to understand speech. Deaf
children develop speech and language skills mainly through their sense of sight. Children who are hard of hearing, on the other
hand, have a significant hearing loss that makes special adaptations necessary. It is possible, however, for these children to
respond to speech and other auditory stimuli. Children who are hard of hearing develop their speech and language skills mainly
through the sense of hearing.
•
How might deafness affect a child’s acquisition and use of speech and language, academic achievement, and social
functioning?
As discussed earlier in the text, a disability may be a handicap in one environment but not in another. Many children with
hearing impairments and deafness lag behind their hearing peers in academic achievement, and the achievement gap usually
widens as they get older. This suggests that more effort needs to be made in enhancing the curriculum and instructions for
students with hearing impairments. Conversely, when answering this question in regard to language and social functioning, it
may be helpful to consider another question: Is it “nature” that attaches enormous importance to hearing in human development
and learning, or is it society? Most people live in a world where hearing is vital to virtually every aspect of their lives. Yet,
there exists a “Deaf culture” that insists it is not a disability to be hearing impaired. In that community, what appears to be a
handicap is not, and given a supportive environment with listeners who can understand the mode communication, most deaf and
hard of hearing children function quite well.
•
What implications for a child’s education result from the type of hearing loss and age of onset?
In general, the time of onset and the severity of hearing loss greatly affect a child’s education. Prelingually deaf children’s
education normally focuses on acquisition of language and communication. A child who has suffered a postlingual hearing loss
usually focuses on maintenance of intelligible speech and appropriate language patterns.
•
How do students who are deaf or hard of hearing use technologies and supports to amplify, supplement, or replace
sound?
Depending on the severity of the hearing loss, a student may have a hearing aid placed in one or both ears to be able to amplify
ambient sounds. These same children may also use a speech-to-text computer program to help supplement their hearing aid in
large-group discussions. They may also employ a sign language interpreter in other situations where appropriate. .
•
How do oral/aural, total communication, and bilingual-bicultural approaches to teaching students who are deaf
and hard of hearing differ in their philosophies and methods?
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For many years educators have debated the most appropriate instructional methods for these children. Educational programs
with an oral emphasis view speech as essential for integration into the hearing world. Much attention is given to amplification,
auditory training, speechreading, and the use of technological aids. Other educators utilize a total communication approach with
students with impaired hearing. This approach uses a variety of methods to assist the child in expressing, receiving, and
developing language. Still others believe that deafness merely reflects a linguistic difference, not a disability, and therefore
advocate for the exclusive use of ASL as the method of instruction.
•
How might membership in the Deaf culture influence a student’s and his family’s perspectives and wishes
regarding educational placement?
Many deaf people do not view themselves as disabled and consider hearing loss an inappropriate and demeaning term because it
suggests a deficiency or pathology. Members of the Deaf community share a common language and social practices. A student,
and his family, who identify with the Deaf culture might prefer a placement in the school for the Deaf. Hearing impairments are
usually viewed as one of the more significant disabilities, perhaps because so much of our learning comes to us through the
sense of hearing. Yet, many people with hearing impairments or who are deaf view hearing loss not as a disability but as a
linguistic difference. In addition, most people who are hearing impaired have typical cognitive abilities and can and often do
vociferously advocate for their own rights. For children who are born to parents who are Deaf, participation and affiliation with
people who share the same mode of communication may be extremely important.
10
BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION
•
What are the instructional implications of the three general classifications of visual impairments that educators
use?
The three general classification categories are totally blind (no vision), functionally blind (receives so little information from vision
that other senses are primarily used), and low vision (receives information from sight but needs to use other senses to supplement).
These general classifications imply that for the first two types of students, instruction should primarily focus on teaching a child
compensatory skills such as learning to read braille and mobility training. For children with low vision, classroom adaptations,
optical devices, and large print can be used as assistive technology to support the student when reading or engaging in activities
that require sight. The age of onset of a visual impairment is also an important consideration in programming. Children who have
been blind from birth have no visual history to apply to their current learning needs. Adventitiously blind children, on the other
hand, have had some visual experiences, which typically facilitate the teaching of many skills.
•
How do blindness and low vision affect learning, motor development, and social interaction?
Children with visual impairments approach learning tasks much differently than children who have sight. Visual impairments
often hinder much of the experiential learning that one gets from sight. Low vision also often affects a child’s ability to connect
and organize different experiences. Visual impairments have a profound impact on a child’s ability to move about his or her
environment. Because of the reduced movement, children who are blind or functionally blind often have slower motor
development than do sighted children. Compared to sighted children, children with low or no vision play and interact less
during free time. These children are often not asked to go to a movie or a ball game, for example. However, there is no evidence
that suggests that these challenges to learning, mobility, and social interaction restrict the potential of children with visual
impairments.
•
Why is it important that teachers know about the types of visual impairments affecting children in their
classroom?
Knowing the type and severity of the visual impairment is of paramount importance for developing an educational plan to meet
the needs of the student. Some students with visual impairments require more intensive supports and adaptations to the
curriculum.
•
How do the educational goals and instructional methods for children with low vision differ from those for children
who are blind?
As do children in all other categories of exceptionality, children with visual impairments exhibit a wide range of abilities.
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Children who are identified as blind generally have little or no useful vision. Children with low vision, on the other hand, often
have residual vision so that with various types of ocular aids, such as large print or magnifiers, they can use printed materials in
their classrooms and communities. Children with visual impairments have different levels of visual ability, but the goal of
instruction is the same for all these children: to teach them skills that will enable them to take their place in society as
productive, self-sufficient individuals.
•
How might the educational placement of a student with visual impairments affect her opportunities to learn the
expanded core curriculum of nonacademic skills necessary for overall success in life?
A basic goal of special education concerns teaching skills for independent and productive living. Academic skills alone will not
accomplish this goal. Learning life skills such as cooking, grooming, managing money, participating in leisure activities, and
coping with societal expectations are essential parts of any curriculum for exceptional learners. In addition, children with visual
impairments should know how to explain their disability to others and to refrain from behaviors such as rocking and head
rolling that draw undue and, often, negative attention to their disabilities. Because most students with visual impairment are
educated in general education school settings, it is easy to focus attention exclusively on academic skills. It is important to
recognize, however, that academics are but one part of a curriculum necessary to prepare students with visual impairment for
life beyond the classroom.
Websites
•
•
American Council of the Blind http://www.acb.org/
American Foundation for the Blind http://www.afb.org/
•
•
Publications
Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness
http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?SectionID=54&DocumentID=4575
Association for the Education and Rehabilitation of the Visually Impaired
http://www.aerbvi.org/
Blindness Resource Center http://www.nyise.org/blind.htm
Center for Accessible Technology http://www.cforat.org/
Council for Exceptional Children Division on Visual Impairments http://www.cecdvi.org/about.htm
National Federation for the Blind http://www.nfb.org
•
•
•
•
•
11-PHYSICAL DISABILITIES, HEATH IMPAIRMENTS, AND ADHD
•
How might the effects of an acute health condition on a student’s classroom participation and educational progress
differ from those of a chronic condition?
Most physical disabilities and health impairments that result in a child receiving special education services are chronic
conditions, meaning they are long lasting or permanent (e.g., cerebral palsy). Acute conditions may be severe and debilitating;
however, they are typically short term (e.g., pneumonia). A child who has an acute condition may have limited participation and
educational progress, but only temporarily. For example, a child who falls behind due to an acute illness may need remediation
to help him catch up. A child with a chronic condition is likely to require long-term services of appropriately intensive supports.
•
Why is the prevalence of chronic medical conditions in children much higher than the number of students
receiving special education under the disability categories of orthopedic impairments and other health
impairments?
Two factors make the actual number of children with physical disabilities and health impairments much higher than the number
of children receiving special education services under these categories. First, in order to qualify for special education services, a
child’s physical or health impairment must adversely affect his or her educational performance. Many children have chronic
conditions that do not adversely affect their educational performance, so they do not receive special education services.
Additionally, many children with chronic physical or health impairments have multiple disabilities, and they are receiving
special education services under other disability categories.
•
What does a classroom teacher need to know about physical disabilities and health impairments in children?
It is important for teachers to understand how a particular condition may affect a child’s learning, development, and behavior. Teachers
must also know how to manage the occasional complications and emergencies they may encounter. Additionally, teachers need to know
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Study Guide: Diverse Learners, Students with Disabilities, English Language Learners
the amount of support and accommodations that will be required to enable the student to function successfully in a classroom. The
amount of support will vary greatly according to each child’s condition, needs, and level of functioning.
•
Why do you think attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not included as a separate disability
category in IDEA?
In order to be diagnosed with ADHD, a physician must determine that a child has consistently displayed six or more symptoms
of either inattention or hyperactivity-impulsivity for at least six months with an onset before age 7. Because the federal
government has stipulated that students with ADHD are eligible under the Other Heath Impairments category, it is probably
unnecessary to create a separate category. Additionally, a substantial number of students diagnosed with ADHD receive special
education services under other IDEA categories (e.g., Learning Disabilities).
•
How might the visibility of a physical disability or health impairment affect a child’s self-perception, social
development, and level of independence across different environments?
How children think about themselves and the degree to which others accept them are often affected by the visibility of their
condition. Some children use a variety of orthopedic appliances that make their physical impairments more noticeable and make
the child with disabilities look even more different from their classmates without disabilities. The visibility of some disabilities
may cause others to underestimate the child’s abilities and limit their participation opportunities. By contrast, many health
conditions that are not as visible (e.g., asthma) may decrease the inclination of others to provide the student with needed special
education services.
•
What are some of the problems that members of transdisciplinary teams for students with physical disabilities and
multiple health needs must guard against?
Members of transdisciplinary teams must guard against anything that interferes with open communication with one another.
No other group of exceptional children comes into contact, both in and out of school, with as many different teachers,
physicians, therapists, and other specialists. Because the medical, educational, therapeutic, vocational, and social needs of
students with physical and health impairments are often complex and frequently affect each other, it is especially important that
educational and health care personnel openly communicate and cooperate with one another.
•
Of the many ways that the physical environment, social environment, and instruction can be modified to support
the inclusion of students with physical disabilities, health impairments, and ADHD, which are most important?
Teachers of children with physical and health impairments often find it necessary to adapt equipment, schedules, or settings so
that their students can participate more fully in educational and recreational activities. Although there is currently an
increasing trend toward integrating children with physical and health conditions, this practice has raised several controversial
issues. These issues revolve around determining the extent to which teachers and schools should realistically be expected to
care for students with physical and health-related disabilities. Decisions concerning the safety of all students must be made.
Perhaps the most important classroom modification is creating an atmosphere in which the student with disabilities feels
socially accepted and comfortable enough to learn and contribute.
12- LOW-INCIDENCE DISABILITIES: SEVERE/MULTIPLE DISABILITIES,
DEAF-BLINDNESS, AND TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY
•
Why is a curriculum based on typical developmental stages and milestones inappropriate for students with severe
and multiple disabilities?
Developmental theories of learning assume that children pass through an orderly sequence of developmental stages. These
stages are the basis for determining what kinds of skills are appropriate for instruction and when those skills should be taught.
For example, if a child has not yet developed the physical dexterity necessary to properly hold a pencil, teaching the child to
write will usually not begin until the child is developmentally “ready.” A curriculum based on typical developmental stages,
however, is unlikely to meet the needs of students with severe disabilities. For children with severe disabilities, learning such
basic skills as getting from place to place independently, communicating, controlling bowel and bladder functions, and selffeeding cannot wait for a readiness stage to be reached. Instruction in these skills, all of which influence the individual’s quality
of life, must begin when individuals with severe disabilities need to learn them, not when they are developmentally ready to
learn them.
•
How can a teacher assist a child who has been hospitalized with a traumatic brain injury return to school?
A teacher should understand that a child returning to school after a traumatic brain injury will fatigue easily and have a short
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attention span. Teachers can assist these students by providing a shortened school day and concentrating academic instruction
during peak performance periods. Additionally, the child should be provided with frequent breaks and a reduced work load.
Teachers should provide clear, uncomplicated instructions, break multistep instructions into simplified steps, and pair auditory
with visual cues. Other modifications should be made based on the needs of the child. For example, a child who has problems
with memory and organization might need a special resource time at the beginning of the day where a teacher helps him plan
the day’s schedule and keep track of assignments.
•
Why are functional and age-appropriate curriculum so critical for students with severe and multiple disabilities?
Educational programs for students with severe disabilities are future oriented in their efforts to teach skills that will enable
students to participate in integrated settings as meaningfully and independently as possible after they leave school. Functional
and age-appropriate behaviors are more likely to be reinforced in the natural environments and, as a result, maintained in the
student’s repertoire.
• How does access to the general academic curriculum benefit students with severe disabilities?
Participation in the general curriculum by students with severe disabilities has enabled some teachers to discover that their
students with the most significant disabilities can do much more than they thought. These students can learn functional skills
when teachers integrate these skills into academic standards and content. In this way, students with severe disabilities are
provided the opportunity to learn academic skills while practicing functional skills.
•
What are the most important skills for a teacher of students with severe and multiple disabilities? Why?
Teaching students with severe disabilities is difficult and demanding. The teacher must be well organized, firm, and consistent.
He or she must be able to manage a complex educational operation, which usually involves supervising paraprofessional aides,
student teachers, peer tutors, and volunteers. The teacher must be knowledgeable about instructional formats and be able to
work cooperatively with other professionals. Most important, teachers must be sensitive to small changes in behavior and be
persistent in evaluating and changing instruction to improve learning and behavior.
•
How much time should a student with severe and multiple disabilities spend in the general education classroom?
Although the social benefits of general education class participation for students with disabilities have been clearly shown, the
effects of full inclusion on the attainment of IEP goals and objectives are not yet known. A major challenge for both special and
general educators is to develop models and strategies for including students with severe disabilities in general education
classrooms activities without sacrificing their opportunities to acquire, practice, and generalize the functional skills they need
most. “How much time should be spent in regular classes? Enough to ensure the student is a member, not a visitor. A lot, if the
student is engaged in meaningful activities. Quite a bit if she is young, but less as she approaches 21” (Brown et al., 1991, p. 46).
13-GIFTED AND TALENTED
•
How has the dynamic and evolving definition of giftedness changed the ways in which students are identified and
served?
Intelligence, creativity, and talent have been central to the various definitions that have been proposed over the years, and they
continue to be reflected in the current and still-evolving definitions. Historically, however, the concept of giftedness has been
neither as broad nor as inclusive as the definitions we currently use. According to most early definitions, only those individuals
with outstanding performances on standard intelligence tests were considered gifted. This narrow view of giftedness dominated
by an IQ score prevailed for many years and came to be associated with only the European American, urban, middle- and upperclass segments of society. Current definitions have grown out of our awareness that IQ alone does not define all the possible
areas of giftedness. Today’s definitions include many talents that contribute substantially to the quality of life for both the
individual and society. This more comprehensive definition allows us to identify and serve a more diverse group of gifted
learners.
•
Why do students who are very capable need special education?
Special education is necessary for children when their physical attributes and/or learning abilities differ from the norm to such
an extent that an individualized program of special education is required to meet their needs. Just as the traditional curriculum
is often inappropriate for the child with a disability, it also can be inappropriate for the child who is gifted and talented. The
traditional curriculum may not provide the kinds of challenges the gifted student requires to learn most effectively. When a
traditional classroom curriculum is not allowing children who are gifted and talented to fulfill their potential and to succeed
fully in school, then special education is needed.
•
What provisions should and can be made to accurately identify students who are from racially, culturally, and
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Study Guide: Diverse Learners, Students with Disabilities, English Language Learners
economically different groups or who have disabilities?
Biases inherent in the identification process are primarily to blame for the underrepresentation of students from culturally
diverse groups in programs for the gifted. Today more than ever, we recognize the need for culturally nonbiased identification
and assessment practices. Current “best practices” for identifying gifted students from diverse cultural groups involve obtaining
information from a variety of sources such as portfolios of student work, tests in specific content areas, creativity tests, and
problem-solving tests. Maker (1994) developed a procedure called DISCOVER that is used to assess gifted students from
diverse backgrounds, female students, and students with disabilities. The DISCOVER assessment process involves a series of
five progressively more complex problems that provide children with various ways to demonstrate problem-solving competence
with the content and with one another.
•
How can general education classroom teachers provide curriculum and instruction at the pace, breadth, and depth
needed by gifted and talented students, while meeting the needs of other students in the classroom?
Three common approaches for teaching gifted and talented students are enrichment, curriculum compacting, and acceleration.
Enrichment experiences allow students to investigate topics of interest. Curriculum compacting is compressing instructional
content so students have more time to work on more challenging materials. Acceleration allows the student to move through
the curriculum faster. Each of these approaches can be used by the general education classroom teacher. Although ability
grouping has been an issue of considerable debate, it is one strategy that might enable general education classroom teachers to
appropriately differentiate instruction. Grouping enables gifted students to be appropriately challenged through more rapid and
advanced instruction. Allowing gifted students to be grouped so that they can progress at their own pace may preserve the
students’ motivation to learn and help prevent problems such as boredom and an aversion toward school.
•
What are some strategies for differentiating curriculum for gifted and talented learners through acceleration and
enrichment?
Acceleration is the general term for a variety of methods for increasing the speed with which a student moves through
curriculum content. Early admission (to kindergarten, junior high, high school, or college), grade skipping, self-paced
instruction, curriculum compacting, telescoping curriculum, concurrent/dual enrollment in high school and college, advanced
placement, and credit by examination are some of the most commonly used acceleration practices. Enrichment enables students
to probe or study a specific subject matter topic of interest or discipline at a greater detail and depth than would occur in the
standard curriculum. Independent study, mentorships, and shadowing are widely used methods for enrichment.
•
Should gifted students be educated with their same-age peers (in general education classes) or in heterogeneous
groups of students who share similar intellectual and academic talents and interests?
Because gifted students learn at a faster rate than most students, they benefit from a differentiated curriculum that can include
enrichment and acceleration. With enrichment, a gifted child can stay in a class with same-age peers but study a topic in greater
depth. With acceleration, students move more quickly through the curriculum. Grade skipping is one form of acceleration. One
commonly heard concern is that grade skipping will lead to social or emotional problems because the child will be in a
classroom with students who are more advanced physically and emotionally. School personnel and parents are usually
concerned that talented students will suffer from the pressure to achieve or will become emotional misfits. However,
longitudinal research found no evidence that acceleration harms willing students (academically or socially).
•
Should special education for gifted and talented students be required by federal law, as it is for students with
disabilities?
Only a small percentage of gifted and talented children enjoy the benefits of differentiated curriculum and instruction. Debates
abound regarding whether gifted and talented students need educational services to meet their needs and to promote
achievement. Students who are gifted and talented have special educational needs that must be addressed to reach their
potential. Large numbers of students who qualify for gifted and talented services drop out of school, and many more students
who are culturally different, in need of special education, and/or economically disadvantaged are never even identified. A federal
law in support of students who are gifted and talented is a critical step toward achieving an appropriate education for this group
of students.
14-EARLY CHILDHOOD SPECIAL EDUCATION
• Why is it so difficult to measure the impact of early intervention?
Numerous methodological problems make it difficult to conduct early intervention research in a scientifically sound manner.
Among the problems are selecting meaningful and reliable outcome measures; the wide disparity among children in the
developmental effects of their disabilities; the tremendous variation across early intervention programs in curriculum focus,
teaching strategies, length, and intensity; and the ethical concerns of withholding early intervention from some children so they
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may form a control group for comparison purposes.
•
How can we provide early intervention for a child whose disability is not
yet present?
A child who has been identified as being at risk for developing a disability because of environmental or biological factors should
receive preventive programming before any evidence of a disability exists. Parents and teachers do not have to wait until a
delay in development occurs before they begin to interact with their children in ways that promote learning and development.
Similarly, medical professionals do not need to wait and observe health or biological conditions before they can prescribe
various precautionary or preventive procedures for the family to follow on behalf of the child. Intervention programs can never
be started too early. Parents and professionals should pursue every reasonable precautionary and preventive measure that can
be taken to ensure that the child does not develop a disability.
•
How are the four different purposes of assessment and evaluation in early childhood special education related to
one another?
The four major types of assessment used in early childhood education are sequential steps for identifying children with special
needs and developing and monitoring their instructional programming. Screening involves quick, easy-to-administer tests to
identify children who may have a disability and who should receive further testing. Diagnosis requires an in-depth and
comprehensive assessment to determine eligibility for special education services. Program planning uses curriculum-based
measurement (CBM) and criterion-referenced tests to determine a child’s present skill level and appropriate objectives. Finally,
evaluation uses CBM and criterion-referenced tests to monitor progress on IEP/IFSP objectives and to inform instructional
decisions. Early intervention has begun to shift away from assessment instruments based entirely on developmental milestones
and has begun to move toward curriculum-based assessment, which links testing, teaching, and new skill acquisition by the
child.
•
Which do you think are the most important goals of early childhood special education?
The goals of early childhood special education are (a) support families in achieving their own goals; (b) promote child
engagement, independence, and mastery; (c) promote development in all important domains; (d) build and support social
competence; (e) facilitate the generalized use of skills; (f) prepare and assist children for normalized life experiences with their
families, in school, and in their communities; (g) help children and their families make smooth transitions; and (h) prevent or
minimize the development of future problems or disabilities. After studying the goals, you should recognize that many are
interrelated and all are intended to lead to increased independence and competency of individual children. All of the goals
address the child within the context of the family and the community.
•
How can a play activity or everyday routine become a specially designed learning opportunity for a preschooler
with disabilities?
Play provides children with natural, repeated opportunities for learning. Teachers of young children with disabilities can
arrange the child’s play environment to promote skill mastery across several developmental domains. Teachers must also
monitor the child’s progress and make adjustments to the environment that will facilitate success of important skills.
15-TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD

Why should postschool outcomes drive educational programming for secondary students with disabilities?
When developing an individual transition plan for secondary students with disabilities, the question guiding the selection of
each objective should be “Will the student need this skill when he’s 21?” The goal of transition planning is to enable the student
to function as independently as possible when he becomes an adult. The multidisciplinary team should select only the goals and
objectives that will contribute to the postschool success of the student with disabilities.

What key factors influence the success of an individualized transition plan?
Nowhere in special education are teaming and collaboration more important than they are when planning and delivering
services for secondary students. The factors most likely to determine the success of an individualized transition plan include the
student’s involvement, family involvement, and collaboration by the professionals involved. Cooperation and communication
between and among professionals and families are critical to effective transition planning.
•
How can teachers of elementary students with disabilities help them prepare for successful life as adults?
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According to IDEA, a statement of transition service needs must be included in the student’s IEP beginning at age 14, and an
individual transition plan must be developed by age 16. However, preparing students with disabilities to function successfully in
the real world should begin as early as possible. Teachers can begin preparing elementary children with disabilities for
adulthood by targeting skills such as social interaction; functional academics (e.g., telling time, counting money), daily living
(e.g., eating habits, self-care), and choice making. Additionally, teachers should expose students to the variety of career
opportunities and leisure activities available to them.
•
Why is self-determination so important to the success of students with disabilities in postsecondary education?
By the time typically developing young adults grow into adulthood, they gain a measure of freedom to make choices about their
own life. This can and should be no different for adults with disabilities. Self-management and self-determination are important
skills for young adults that enable effective goal setting, planning, and studying, and self-advocacy is particularly needed to
succeed in postsecondary education endeavors.
• How do the philosophy and principles of supported living differ from traditional residential placement services?
Supported living is the term used to describe the process of assisting adults with disabilities in living as “normal” a life as
possible. Supported living is not a place or a single set of procedures but rather reflects a belief system that adults with
disabilities should, to the highest extent possible, be able to make independent decisions about where they live, how the live, and
how they spend their time and money. Conversely, traditional residential placement services often do not reflect a “normal”
standard of living that adults without disabilities enjoy. For example, outside of a college fraternity, most adults do not live in a
“group home.”
•
How can teachers help school-age children with disabilities achieve satisfying recreation and leisure as adults?
In addition to academic skills, many professionals realize the importance of teaching recreation and leisure skills. However,
learning appropriate recreational and leisure-time activities can sometimes be difficult for many people with disabilities. Too
often leisure skills for people with disabilities consist of watching large amounts of television or listening to music in isolation.
One of the best ways to help students with disabilities is to expose them to many different kinds of recreation and encourage
and support the student’s own interests.
•
Is quality of life for adults with disabilities the ultimate outcome measure for special education? Why or why not?
Ultimately, quality of life should be the outcome measure of all educational programs, including those programs for students
with disabilities. A person may have been taught many skills, but if those skills do not enable him or her to enjoy the benefits
available in personal, social, work, and leisure settings, the wrong skills have been taught and a disservice has been done to that
individual. When selecting and prioritizing specific skills to teach students with disabilities, teachers must consider the extent
to which those skills will ultimately help improve the student’s quality of life.
More….
Study the special education terms listed below:
Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education
Education for cultural diversity involves managing tension between microcultural diversity and common macrocultural
values. Multicultural education aims to change educational institutions and curricula so that they will provide equal educational
opportunities to all students, regardless of gender, social class, ethnicity, race, disability, or other cultural identity. It also seeks to
socialize students to a multicultural norm—tolerance of and respect for those whose culture is different from their own. Of
particular concern to special educators is how exceptionalities are related to cultural diversity and the way in which special
education fits within the broader general education context in a multicultural society. Cultural diversity presents challenges to
special educators in the areas of assessment of abilities and disabilities, instruction, teaching tolerance and appreciation, working
with families, improving instruction for language-minority students, adopting effective teaching practices and socialization.
Learners with Mental Retardation
Approximately 1.0 to 1.5 percent of the school-age population are identified as mentally retarded. The definition of mental
retardation has undergone significant changes, and today a more conservative approach is used to identify students. The cause of
mental retardation can be traced in only about 10 to 15 percent of the cases. Mild mental retardation is typically attributed to poor
environmental and/or hereditary factors. Causes of retardation for persons whose retardation is more severe generally fall into two
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broad categories: genetic factors and brain damage. Professionals assess intelligence and adaptive skills to determine whether
persons are mentally retarded. Although there is great variability in their behavior, persons with mental retardation have learning
problems related to motivation. Academic, self-help, community living and vocational skills are stressed in educational programs for
students with mental retardation.
Learners with Learning Disabilities
The term learning disabilities was first used in the 1960’s by professionals and parents to describe children who, despite normal or
near-normal intelligence, displayed a puzzling array of learning problems. Learning disabilities is the largest category of special
education, constituting over half of all students identified as eligible for special education services. Although most cases of learning
disabilities are unknown, more and more evidence is accumulating that students with learning disabilities have central nervous
system dysfunction that may be related to genetic, teratogenic or medical factors. Standardized, formative, informal and authentic
assessments are the most commonly used types of evaluation used to assess learning disabilities. Persons with learning disabilities
have many interindividual and intradividual variations in their psychological and behavioral characteristics.
Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
In 1902, Dr. George Still used the phrase “defective moral control” to describe the children who seemed unable to refrain from
inappropriate behavior. To this day, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is still considered to be primarily a deficit
involving behavioral inhibition. ADHD is not recognized as its own special education category; however, many students with
ADHD are served by special education under the category of “other health impaired.” Most professionals rely on the American
Psychiatric Association’s criteria to determine whether an individual has ADHD. Estimates of ADHD indicated that 3 to 5 percent
of school-age children have ADHD, with boys outnumbering girls 3 to 1. Assessment of ADHD should consist of a medical
examination, a clinical interview, and teacher and parent rating scales. The most characteristic problem associated with ADHD is
the inability to inhibit or regulate one’s own behavior. Children and adults with ADHD also have difficulty in adaptive behavior and
in relationships with peers
Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Emotional or behavioral disorders involve inappropriate social interactions and transactions between the individual and his or her
social environment. The most current definitions incorporate several statements regarding behavior: that the behavior goes to an
extreme, that is unacceptable because of social or cultural expectations, and that the problem is chronic. Statistical analysis of
behavioral characteristics have established two broad dimensions of behavior: externalizing (acting-out, under controlled behavior)
and internalizing (withdrawn, over controlled behavior).Within these broad dimensions, more narrow and specific dimensions such
as attention problems, conduct disorder, depression, and psychotic behavior have also been identified. Because it is almost
impossible to identify a single cause of emotional or behavioral disorders, we typically can point only to casual factors associated
with biological influences, families, schools, and cultures that may contribute to the likelihood that a child will develop an emotional
or behavioral disorder.
Learners with Communication Disorders
Communication involves sending and receiving meaningful messages. Two of the tools of communication are speech and
language. A communication disorder may involve speech, language, or both. Disorders of speech and language are among the most
common disabilities of children. Disorders of language are typically classified according to the five subsystems of
language: Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Speech disorders include disorders of voice (pitch, loudness
and quality), articulation and fluency. For some individuals, because of physical or cognitive disability, a system of augmentative or
alternative communication must be designed. Professionals are concerned with advancing the communication of children whose
cultural heritage or language patterns are not those of the dominant culture.
Learners who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
The definition and classification of hearing loss differs according to the viewpoint of the professional. Educators are concerned with
the extent to which the loss affects the person’s ability to speak and understand spoken language. About 0.14 percent of the schoolaged population are identified as deaf or hard of hearing by the public schools. Hearing loss can be the result of impairments to the
outer, middle or inner ear. In general, children with hearing loss have low academic achievement and are at risk for
loneliness. Issues surrounding the extent to which people with hearing loss socialize with others who have hearing loss and the
system of signing that should be used in the classroom are controversial.
Learners with Blindness or Low Vision
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The two most common ways of describing visual impairment are the legal and educational definitions. The educational definition is
based on how well students can function in the classroom. Less than .05 percent of school-aged children are visually impaired. The
most common visual problems are the result of errors of refraction. It is virtually impossible to compare the abilities of sighted
children and those with limited or no sight because it is difficult to find comparable tests. Mobility is a very important ability for the
successful adjustment of many people with visual impairment. In addition to mobility training, the student with little or no sight
typically requires special modifications in three other major areas in the classroom: Braille, use of remaining sight and listening
skills.
Learners with Low Incidence, Multiple and Severe Disabilities
Severe and multiple disabilities are often linked conceptually because nearly any severe disability will involve extensive and ongoing
support in more than one major life activity. Although the IDEA has identified autism as a separate category of disability, other
disorders that are similar to it (Asperger Syndrom, Rett’s Disorder and childhood disintegrative disorder) are now typically
identified in broader terms: autistic spectrum disorder and pervasive developmental disorder (PDD). The main focus areas for
teachers is helping students with brain injuries recover cognitive abilities, which are critical to academic and social progress, and use
coping mechanisms and alternative strategies for whatever abilities cannot be recovered.
Learners with Physical Disabilities
Children and youth with physical disabilities are those whose physical limitations or health problems interfere with school
attendance or learning to such an extent that special services, training, equipment, materials, or facilities are required. One of the
most common causes of physical disability in children is damage to the central nervous system (the brain or the spinal cord), such as
found in cerebral palsy, seizure disorder (epilepsy), and spina bifida. Some children are disabled by musculoskeletal conditions, such
as muscular dystrophy and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, in which there are defects or diseases of the muscles or bones. Other
physical disabilities may include congenital malformations or physical conditions brought about by accidents, diseases, infections, or
child abuse and neglect. Students with physical disabilities represent a group of children and youths with a total range of
impairment, with varied behavioral and psychological characteristics. Physical disabilities may limit students’ experiences and it
may be difficult or impossible for some students to manipulate educational materials or to respond to educational tasks the way most
students do.
Learners with Special Gifts and Talents
There is little agreement about how to define giftedness and no federal law requires special education for students with special gifts
or talents. Identification of giftedness is complicated because measurement of some components cannot be assessed by traditional
means. The stereotypes of persons with extraordinary abilities as physically weak, socially inept, having a narrow range of
interests, and prone to emotional instability or as superheroes are incorrect. Giftedness includes a wide variety of abilities and
degrees of difference from average. Students with special gifts or talents who underachieve, are members of a minority, have
disabilities, or are female are likely to be neglected. In general, educational plans for children and adolescents with extraordinary
abilities provide for acceleration or enrichment.
Professional Collaborative Partnerships
Roles in the Collaborative Process
General education teacher– has knowledge of the school’s general education curriculum requirements and helps the Committee
determine appropriate positive behavioral interventions, instructional strategies, supplementary aids and services, program
modifications and supports for school personnel that are necessary for the student to participate in general education classes.
Special education teacher – must be a teacher qualified to provide special education in the type of program in which the student
may be placed and be the teacher likely to implement the student’s IEP. The student’s special education teacher can provide
information on the specially designed instruction needed to address the student’s unique needs.
Related service professionals – At least one individual must participate in the Committee meeting who can provide information on
the results of the student’s individual evaluation report and assist the Committee in identifying the implications of those results for
the instruction of the student. The school district representative must be someone who is qualified to provide or supervise special
education and who is knowledgeable about the general education curriculum and the availability of resources of the district. In
addition, all parties have discretion to include other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the student. A
school psychologist contributes an understanding of the individual evaluations conducted on the student, assists to identify the
positive behavioral intervention supports and strategies needed by the student, assists to plan school programs to meet the student’s
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needs and to identify, plan and manage any psychological services the student might need. Other agency representatives may
include a transitions representative and/or a representative of a private school that is being operated by another State department
or agency that the student is attending.
Parents – Parents bring a history as well as current information on their child’s strengths and needs and concerns and ideas for
enhancing their child’s education. They can also provide information on their child’s interests that can be used to motivate the
child’s learning, the skills that the child shows at home and in other settings and whether skills learned in school are being
demonstrated elsewhere.
Child – The concerns, interests and recommendations of the student need to be considered. An IEP that builds on the strengths of
the student and includes recommendations that the student can support is more likely to result in successful outcomes for the
student. Each student, beginning at age 14, must be invited to any meeting at which his or her transition service needs will be
discussed.
Elements to Successful Collaboration
Shared sense of responsibility
Open and continuous communication
Regularly scheduled planning sessions
Freedom to take risks
Benefits of Collaboration
It lowers the student-teacher ratio
Students with disabilities have a better sense of belonging
Students are held to higher expectations
Shared learning occurs between collaborative partners
It decreases teacher frustration levels
“Two heads are better than one”
Collaborative Models
Station teaching: Students rotate through centers manned by collaborative partners. In this co-teaching approach, teachers divide
content and students. Each teacher then teaches the content to one group and subsequently repeats the instruction for the other
group. If appropriate, a third station could give students an opportunity to work independently.
Parallel teaching: Students are divided into two groups and two teachers teach simultaneously. On occasion, student learning
would be greatly facilitated if they just had more supervision by the teacher or more opportunity to respond. In parallel teaching,
the teachers are both covering the same information, but they divide the class into two groups and teach simultaneously.
Co-teaching: Two teachers are involved in teaching the same lesson. Team Teaching: In team teaching, both teachers are
delivering the same instruction at the same time. Some teachers refer to this as having one brain in two bodies. Others call it tag
team teaching. Most co-teachers consider this approach the most complex but satisfying way to co-teach, but the approach that is
most dependent on teachers' styles.
One teach, one drift: One teacher is teaching while the other provides assistance. In a second approach to co-teaching, one person
would keep primary responsibility for teaching while the other professional circulated through the room providing unobtrusive
assistance to students as needed.
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Tag-team teaching: One teacher is teaching while one teacher interjects as necessary. In most class groups, occasions arise in
which several students need specialized attention. In alternative teaching, one teacher takes responsibility for the large group while
the other works with a smaller group.
One teach, one observe: One of the advantages in co-teaching is that more detailed observation of students engaged in the
learning process can occur. With this approach, for example, co-teachers can decide in advance what types of specific observational
information to gather during instruction and can agree on a system for gathering the data. Afterward, the teachers should analyze
the information together
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