Does Your Mother Know?
Parent-Child Communication About Adolescent Daily Activities
Loes Keijsers, PhD
ABSTRACT & REFERENCES
2012, Loes Keijsers
Universiteit Utrecht
L.Keijsers@uu.nl
www.LoesKeijsers.nl
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INTRODUCTION
Juvenile offending is a wide-spread problem in Western societies: More than half of the
adolescents engage in minor forms of delinquency, and this causes high material and
immaterial costs. For a long time, parental monitoring, which has often been operationalized
as parental knowledge, was considered one of the strongest predictors of such adolescent
offending (e.g., Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Loeber & Dishion, 1983; Patterson &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984). Stattin and Kerr’s work (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Stattin & Kerr,
2000) added to this line of studies by suggesting that monitoring knowledge often stems
from voluntary adolescent disclosure. This dissertation was written to extend our
understanding of how parental and adolescent behaviors towards each may be predictive of
adolescent delinquency.
Firstly, this dissertation aimed to examine, for the first time, whether adolescent
management of information from parents and parental monitoring behaviors, such as
parental solicitation and control, are longitudinally predictive of adolescent delinquency.
Such a longitudinal approach is unique in that it may be used to examine transactional
processes between parents and children and clarify bidirectional linkages, that is, whether
lack of monitoring and information management predict delinquency, or vice versa, whether
involvement in delinquency sets changes into motion in the family in which parents reduce
their monitoring and in which children increasingly keep secrets for their parents. Moreover
it allows examining normative and non-normative developmental changes in the parentchild relationship and how such changes may affect the development of delinquency.
Secondly, this dissertation aimed at understanding the relational context in which
parent-child communication about adolescent daily activities takes place, because
sometimes lost in the ongoing debate contrasting parent and adolescent effects on
adolescent delinquency, is the recognition that behaviors of the parent and adolescent are
experienced and interpreted within the context of the long-established parent–child
relationship. In this dissertation, we thus aimed at examining whether parents and children
mutually affect each other and overlap in the developmental changes in their behaviors.
Figure 1.1C displays the innovative theoretical aspects of the studies in this dissertation
compared to initial formulations of parental monitoring (Figure 1.1A) and to Stattin and
Kerr’s ideas (Figure 1.1B). In particular: 1) both parental monitoring and adolescent
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information management were considered key aspects of parent-child communication, 2)
longitudinal bidirectional linkages between parent-child communication and adolescent
delinquency (indicated by arrows heading in both directions) were studied, 3) the theoretical
model includes a developmental perspective (i.e., the model is placed in a time-context), 4)
parental monitoring and adolescent information management, as well as their reciprocal
effects upon each other, were explicitly placed in the context of other parent-relationship
characteristics.
METHOD
Data from three ongoing multi-informant longitudinal studies from two different
countries were used for these purposes. A first study, entitled CONflict And Management Of
RElationships (CONAMORE) (Meeus et al.), followed over 1300 adolescents for five years. In
this dissertation, data of five successive measurement waves on a subsample of 309 Dutch
two-parent families were used (age range 13 to 17). The second study that was used, is the
Pittsburgh Youth Study (PYS; Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber et al). During a work-visit to the
research lab of Rolf Loeber, data were analyzed of the youngest cohort of this study,
including 17 waves of interview data (from age 7 to 19) of 503 US boys, their primary
caregivers, and their teachers. Third, the RADAR-study (Research on Adolescents
Development And Relationships; Meeus & Koot et al.) was used, including three annual
waves of questionnaire data of 497 Dutch adolescents, their fathers, mothers, and their best
friends. Ages ranged between 13 and 15. Both in the PYS and RADAR datasets children with
higher levels of externalizing problems were overrepresented.
A wide range of longitudinal modeling strategies were used to answer each specific
research question. Strategies include Growth Curve Modeling, Cross-lagged panel modeling,
Latent Class Growth Modeling and Growth Mixture Modeling, and Zero-Inflated Poisson
Modeling.
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Parental
monitoring
Adolescent
delinquency
Parental
monitoring
Adolescent
delinquency
A
B
Adolescent
disclosure
C
Parental
monitoring
Adolescent
delinquency
Adolescent
disclosure
Relationship
Age
Figure 1.1. Comparing initial formulations (A), with a new interpretation of the literature by Stattin and Kerr (B), with the
bidirectional, developmental, and relationship contextual model for studying adolescent information management and
parental monitoring in this dissertation (C).
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HIGHLIGHTED RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS
Longitudinal analyses on multi-informant data examining the linkages between parentchild communication and delinquency yielded several theoretically relevant results. Findings
revealed that parental knowledge mainly results from voluntary adolescent disclosure and
not from parental monitoring efforts, indicating the importance of studying both child and
parent behaviors. Findings show, moreover, that low levels of parental control may not be a
risk-factor for, but instead result from adolescent engagement in delinquency. The strongest
predictor of adolescent delinquency was adolescent management of information from
parents. Bidirectional and developmental linkages with adolescent delinquency were found.
More specifically, the results in this dissertation were the first to highlight that adolescent
secrecy predicted future involvement in delinquency to a stronger extent than adolescent
disclosure. Negative effects of overly high levels of parental control and privacy invasion
became also apparent in this series of studies. For instance, this dissertation was the first to
show longitudinal effects of prohibition of friendships to higher adolescent delinquency, via
increased contact with delinquent peers.
These studies were also among the first to show that clear developmental changes occur
in parent-child communication towards more adolescent autonomy: Adolescent disclosure
decreases and secrecy increases and parents gradually release control and become less
knowledgeable. A too strong decrease in adolescent disclosure and too strong decrease in
the affective quality of the relationship correlated with a stronger increase in delinquency.
The parent-adolescent relational context was found to be an important factor in
understanding parent-child communication and its’ linkages to delinquency. Findings suggest
transactional processes between behavior of parents and their adolescent children. Findings
suggest that adolescents will keep fewer secrets and disclose more when parents ask nonintrusive questions, spend time with their child, and provide high levels of support.
Moreover, parent-child relationship quality moderated the effects of parental control on
delinquency, suggesting that retaining higher levels of parental control may only be effective
in reducing delinquency when parent-child relationships are of lower quality. Retaining
higher levels of control in highly supportive relationships, may even predict higher levels of
delinquency.
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Parental
monitoring
Adolescent
delinquency
Adolescent
disclosure
Adolescent
secrecy
Relationship
Time
Figure 2. Implications in this dissertation regarding bidirectional, developmental and relationship contextual aspect of
parental monitoring and adolescent information management.
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CONCLUSION
Together, the findings in this dissertation can refine our theoretical ideas on the etiology
of adolescent offending, increase our understanding of normative and non-normative
developmental changes in parent-child relationships and the consequences that may follow,
and add to an understanding of transactional and bidirectional processes that occur
between parents and their adolescent children. It offers systematic evidence for the role of
adolescent disclosure in predicting delinquency and identifies adolescent secrecy to be a key
risk factor for offending. It also indicates that parental control may have detrimental or
beneficial outcomes in terms of adolescent delinquency, depending on the quality of the
parent-child relationship. It shows that adolescents become more autonomous when they
mature and that non-normative developmental changes in parent-child relationships may
relate to more frequent adolescent engagement in delinquency. It highlights the detrimental
aspects of privacy invasion and prohibition of friendships when adolescent grow older.
Finally, it indicates that processes between parents and children are often transactional in
nature, with parents and children affecting each other in a reciprocal fashion.
As such, this set of findings may have great practical implications for parents and
practitioners who try to prevent adolescent delinquency or try to improve the quality of
parent-child communication. In fact, the findings of this PhD-project are currently being
implemented in an existing intervention for parents with offending youth, with use of a
national valorisation grant.
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LITERATURE REFERENCES PER CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Keijsers, L.. & Laird, R.D. (2010). Introduction to Special Issue: Careful conversations: Adolescents
managing their parents’ access to information. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 255-260.
Keijsers, L., & Laird, R. D. (2010). Management of Personal Information in Relationships with Parents
[special issue]. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 255-346
CHAPTER 2. RECIPROCAL EFFECTS BETWEEN PARENTAL MONITORING, ADOLESCENT DISCLOSURE,
AND ADOLESCENT DELINQUENCY
Keijsers, L., Branje, S. J. T., Van der Valk, I. E., & Meeus, W. (2010). Reciprocal effects between
parental solicitation, parental control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent delinquency.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 88-113
Keijsers, L., Branje, S. J. T., Van der Valk, I. E., & Meeus, W. (2009). Mag ik even met je praten? Ouderkind communicatie en delinquentie bij adolescenten. Pedagogiek, 29. 111-123.
CHAPTER 3. DEVELOPMENTAL LINKS OF ADOLESCENT DISCLOSURE AND
PARENTAL MONITORING WITH DELINQUENCY: MODERATION BY PARENTAL SUPPORT
Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. (2009). Developmental Links of Adolescent
Disclosure, Parental Solicitation and Control with Delinquency: Moderation by Parental
Support. Developmental Psychology 45, 1314-1327.
Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S.J.T., & Meeus, W. (2010). We moeten praten! Ontwikkeling van ouderkind communicatie en delinquentie: Moderatie door steun van ouders. Pedagogiek, 30, 192210.
CHAPTER 4. BENEFITS AND DETRIMENTS OF PARENTAL MONITORING FOR
ADOLESCENT INFORMATION MANAGEMENT, FEELINGS OF PRIVACY INVASION, AND ADOLESCENT
DELINQUENCY
Hawk, S. T., Keijsers, L., Hale, W. W., III, , Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., & Meeus, W. (2010). “waar bemoei jij
je mee?” privacy schending als gevolg van monitoring door ouders. Pedagogiek, 30, 138-153.
CHAPTER 5. DEVELOPMENT OF PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS FOR BOYS IN DIFFERENT
OFFENDING TRAJECTORIES
Keijsers, L., Loeber, R., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (in press). Parent-Child Relationships of Boys in
Different Offending Trajectories. A Developmental Perspective. Journal of Child Psychology &
Psychiatry.
Keijsers, L., Loeber, R., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2011). Bidirectional Links and Concurrent
Development of Parent-Child Relationships and Boys’ Offending Behavior. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 120, 878–889.
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CHAPTER 6. KEEPING SECRETS FROM PARENTS: DEVELOPMENT, RELATIONAL CONSEQUENCES,
AND GENDER DIFFERENCES
Keijsers, L., Branje, S.J.T., Frijns, T., Finkenauer, C., & Meeus, W. (2010). Gender Differences in
Keeping Secrets from Parents in Adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 46, 293-298
Keijsers, L., Branje, S., Frijns, T., Finkenauer, C., & Meeus, W. (2010). Aan niemand doorvertellen...
Ontwikkeling van geheimen voor ouders in de adolescentie. Tijdschrift voor Orthopedagogiek,
49, 207-215
CHAPTER 7. FIGHT OR HIDE: ADOLESCENT RESPONSES TO PARENTAL PRIVACY INVASION
Keijsers, L., Hawk, S. T. (both first author), Frijns, T., Hale III, W. W., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (in press).
"I still haven't found what i'm looking for": Parental privacy invasion predicts reduced parental
knowledge. Developmental Psychology
CHAPTER 8. PARENTAL SUPERVISION OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS, CONTACT WITH DEVIANT
PEERS, AND ADOLESCENT DELINQUENCY
Keijsers, L., Branje, S., Hawk, S.T., Schwartz, S., Frijns, T., Koot, H.M., van Lier, P.A.C., & Meeus,
W. (2012). Forbidden Friends as Forbidden Fruit: Parental Supervision of Friendships, Contact
with Deviant Peers, and Adolescent Delinquency. Child Development 83, 651-666
OTHER PUBLICATIONS ON PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM BEHAVIORS
Keijsers, L. (2012).Jeugddelinquentie en De Rol van de Ouders. Enkele Recente
Wetenschappelijke inzichten. In I. Weijers, Parens patriae en prudentie.
Grondslagen van jeugdbescherming. Amsterdam: SWP Publishers.
Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2011). Stille wateren: Weinig vertellen
versus veel geheim houden en probleemgedrag bij jongeren. Kind & Adolescent, 32,
33-47.
Keijsers, L., Hawk, S.T., Hale, III, W.W., & Meeus, W. (2011). Daar Heb Jij Niets Mee te
Maken! Longitudinale Relaties Tussen Privacyschending en OuderAdolescentconflict. Pedagogiek 31, 172-187.
Frijns, T., Keijsers, L., Branje, S.J.T., & Meeus, W. (2010). What Parents Don’t Know and
How It May Affect Their Children: Qualifying the Disclosure-Adjustment Link. Journal
of Adolescence, 33, 261-270.
Graaf, H., Vanwesenbeeck, I., Woertman, L., Keijsers, L., Meijer, S., & Meeus, W.
(2010). Parental Support and Knowledge and Adolescents' Sexual Health: Testing
Two Mediational Models in a National Dutch Sample. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 39, 189-198.
Hawk, S., Keijsers, L., Hale, W.W., III, & Meeus, W. (2009). Mind your own business!
Longitudinal relations between perceived privacy invasion and adolescent-parent
conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 511-520.
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