Sept. 30, 2007
Soils
Mature soil is a renewable resource which can be formed, but if it is used faster than it is produced than it becomes
nonrenewable.
Produced by rocks being weathered and sediments deposited.
Soil Horizons – What is the different levels
O Horizon – Surface litter layer
Includes: fungi, twigs, waste, and all organic material
The desert does not have a large O Horizon
Decomposition – gives a warming effect
A Horizon – Topsoil
Decomposed organic material – Humus
-
Mixed with inorganic particles which make it loose and darker than other soils. – Plants spread out their roots
in this soil.
Decomposition recycles nutrients.
Soil holds moisture
Top soil is the foundation of human civilization.
The topsoil anchors the roots in place.
Included in topsoil: critters, fungi, earth worms, bacteria.
Color tells us about the soils usefulness for growing plants.
Our forest, parries, and grass lands create great topsoil.
B Horizon – subsoil


Larger pieces of broken down material
Less organic material
C Horizon – Bedrock



Rock itself that works its way to the surface
Decomposition of granite less; produces an acid content.
Deep South has clay bedrock that brings red clay to the surface.
Infiltration – how water works its way through the soil, it can percolate and if it dissolves nutrients and places them
throughout the soil then leaching occurs.
Sept. 30, 2007
Particles
1) Clay – very fine particles, which contain a lot of aluminum and the process of infiltration, is hindered in clay
because it cannot penetrate. Clay will fracture and when water gets into the cracks it cause it to shift.
2) Silt – slightly larger particles, includes organic materials, plants like it because of the nutrients that it contains.
Contains larger pieces like sand which is sometimes used as a filter. This is one good reason why wetlands make
good water cleaning systems
3) Gravel – larger pieces. Aid in allowing airspace to occur under the soil.
Soil that is roughly equal amounts of clay, sand, silt, and humus is referred to as loam. This is the best growing
media.
It takes 200-1000 years to create an inch of new topsoil. If it erodes faster than it is made then it become
nonrenewable.
Erosion – requires flowing water and/or wind to occur.
Wind Erosion – 1930’s Midwestern states (Dust Bowl), were subject to a drought and improper agricultural practices
and when the winds come through it picked up the topsoil and blew it east. We are seeing the same thing happen in
Northern China.
3 types of water erosion
1) Sheet erosion – small layers are just peeled off which may not be noticeable. When water moves over a large
area it forms rivulets.
2) Rill Erosion – when rivulets are formed
3) Gully – When rill erosion continues it produces gullies.
2 Major harmful effects of erosion – test question
1) Loss of soil fertility and its ability to hold water.
2) Run off of sediments that pollute water, it can kill fish by suffocating them.
How serious is global soil erosion?
Eroding faster than it can form. 38% losing its topsoil, 17% in China.
2000 study – 40% of the worlds land used for agriculture is being degraded and reduced food production on about
16% of the crop land.
Erosion moves soil from one place to another.
Our lakes and reservoirs have almost reached their capacity which means more flood damage down the road.
In the US ever since the Dust Bowl Days, Roosevelt started the Soil Conservation Service which is supposed to
control erosion.
Iowa has lost about ½ of their topsoil.
Efforts by the USDA to control erosion has decreased
Desertification – turning land into a desert is on an increase.
Sept. 30, 2007
Combination of natural climate produces drought and inadequate human activities.
Worldwide 3.1 million miles has become desertified over the last 50 years. Each year 58 thousand square miles turn
into a desert and losses of 42 billion dollars a year because of this process. Examples: mining and deforestation.
Planting trees will greatly decrease this threat.
Geological Resources
April 26, 1986 – Series of explosions in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine, which blew the roof off the plant.
Results: by the year 200, estimates of 8,000 people had died from radioactive related problems.
62,000 sq. miles of Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with dangerous radioactive materials. The
Chernobyl region had lush green farm lands, all cows, cats, and dogs either died or were shot because the
radioactive material in the grass would kill them.
By 2002 the Chernobyl plant still remains the deadliest place on earth.
Energy Resources
Most of the energy comes from the sun.
Energy Consumption as a society
Kcal/person/day
US
260,000
Industrialized
130,000
Early Industrial
60,000
Advanced Agricultural
20,000
Early Agricultural
12,000
Hunters & Gathers
5,000
Primitives
2,000
Commercial Energy Use
US
World
Renewable
8%
18%
Nonrenewable
92%
82%
Nuclear
8%
6%
Coal
22%
21%
Natural Gas
23%
23%
Sept. 30, 2007
Oil
39%
32%
Exxon Mobil in 2005 had 36 Billion dollar profit.
Oil is found in the cracks and pores of the rock.oil – Comes from plankton and dead sea creatures. The process takes 2140 million years to form oil.
When you drill an oil well, you are only getting about 35% of the oil that is there. You can force steam under pressure
into the rock and get more oil. Effects on surface is imperatively low.
Technologies can improve the extraction of oil without damaging the quality
Once it is in the refinery it is heated and produces different layers:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Petroleum
Gasoline
Aviation fuel – Kerosene
Heating oil
Diesel
Napha
Grease
Wax
Asphalt
Petra chemicals give us plastics, drugs, etc.
11 countries (OPEC) has 67% of all reserves
As a nation Saudi Arabia has 265 of the world’s crude oil reserves
9-10% - Iraq, Iran, Kuwait
Latin America – 9%
Africa 7%
US – 3%
Western Union - 2%
Oil Production peaked 1973, because US sided with Israel and OPEC stopped selling to the US.
Iran does not have enough gasoline, because they do not have the refineries.
Titusville PA, first oil well
Sent everyone looking for oil in Texas and other counties.
US has 3% but uses 26% - 68% of this is being used for transportation. The US is importing 55%
23% of this oil is coming from gulf countries – 26% comes from the OPEC countries.
2001 the US bill for imports was 100 Billion.
Sept. 30, 2007
By 2010 the US could be importing more than 60% of its oil
Oil should last 55 years; the oil reserves not found but thought to exist could add 20 years.
The US oil reserves could last 10 – 15 years. The US oil production could last 10-40 years. Assuming we use oil at the
current rate, Saudi Arabia’s oil reserve could last another 10 years. To keep up with the use of oil we would have to
discover a supply the size of Saudi Arabia’s every 10 years.
Oil Shell – a fine grain sedimentary rock contains Kerogen. If you heat it up you can extract shell oil, which can be sent to
a refinery. The estimated shell supply is said to be 200 times greater than the regular oil supply
Tar San – contains Bitumen – the largest reserves are in Alberta these oil supplies are 23% of all of Canada’s oil use.
Natural Gas – contains 50- 90% By Volume Methane, Smaller amounts of ethane, butane, etc.
Conventional natural gas lies above oil reserves. Unconventional supplies can be found in other below ground areas.
The butane and ethane is released and creates liquid called LPG.
The Methane is pressurized and liquefied – LNG this is what is put in the gas tanks
42% - Russia and Kasastean
15% - Iran
5% -Qatar
3% - US
Natural gas supplies will last – conventional gas Expected to last 165-180 years
Conventional plus unconventional gas would last 205-325 years
Lower pollution, lower CO2
In 2001 natural gas was burned - 53% heat and 16% electricity
Coal
Dead plants that is buried over by sediments
Anthracite, metamorphic rock, high heat content, low sulfur content, 98% carbon, the most desirable coal, is used in
the steel mills
Bituminous Coal – Steam Coal, has a high heat content, supplies are vast, but has a high sulfur content
Lignite& peat – brown coal, low heat, low sulfur, partially decayed plant material
Coal contains small amount of sulfur trace amounts of mercury and radioactivity, there is more radioactivity released
from coal then nuclear power plants.
Burn to generate 62% of the world electricity
Sept. 30, 2007
US – 24%
Russia, China, and India
Email Assignment - 2005 or 2006 – look up the number of Chinese miners that lost their lives for the whole year.
China has 11% of the world’s reserves
Use of coal has been going down as the use of oil has been going up.
In the US alone coal burning air pollutants will kill thousands of people.
Coal is crushed washed then transported.