2nd nine weeks -Geology Unit
ANTICIPATED LEARNING
Virginia Standard of Learning: 5.7 a-g
The student will investigate and understand how the Earth’s surface is constantly changing.
Key Concepts:
a. the identification of rock types;
b. the rock cycle and how transformations between rocks occur
c. Earth history and fossil evidence;
d. the basic structure of the Earth’s interior;
e. changes in the Earth’s crust due to plate tectonics
f. weathering and erosion, and deposition; and
g. human impact.
 Rocks have properties that can be observed, tested, and described. Composition, grain size and textural features, color, and
the presence of fossils help with identification. Classification keys (5.1) can aid this process.
 Rocks move and change over time due to heat and pressure within Earth and due to weathering, erosion, and deposition at
the surface. These and other processes constantly change rock from one type to another.
 Depending on how rocks are formed, they are classified as sedimentary (layers of sediment cemented together), igneous
(melted and cooled, e.g., lava and magma), and metamorphic (changed by heat and pressure).
 Scientific evidence indicates Earth is ancient — approximately 4.6 billion years old. The age of many rocks can be determined
very reliably. Fossils provide information about life and conditions of the past.
 Scientific evidence indicates that Earth is composed of four concentric layers — crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core —
each with its own distinct characteristics. The outer two layers are composed primarily of rocky material. The innermost layers
are composed mostly of iron and nickel. Pressure and temperature increase with depth beneath the surface.
 Earth’s thermal energy causes movement of material within Earth. Large continent-size blocks (plates) move slowly about
Earth’s surface, driven by that thermal energy.
 Most earthquakes and volcanoes are located at the boundaries of the plates (faults). Plates can move together (convergent
boundaries), apart (divergent boundaries), or slip past each other horizontally (transform boundaries, also called strike-slip or
sliding boundaries).
 Geological features in the oceans (including trenches and mid-ocean ridges) and on the continents (mountain ranges,
including the Appalachian Mountains) are caused by current and past plate movements.
 Rocks and other materials on Earth’s surface are constantly being broken down both chemically and physically. The products
of weathering include clay, sand, rock fragments, and soluble substances.
 Materials can be moved by water and wind (eroded) and deposited in new locations as sediment (deposition).
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Humans have varying degrees of impact on Earth’s surface through their everyday activities.
Vocabulary
Appalachian Mountains – a chain of mountains in Virginia that were formed long ago by tectonic plates colliding
convergent boundary – boundary where two or more tectonic plates are moving together (compression)
crust – the outer layer of Earth; made of rock
deposition – the laying down of sediments by wind, water or glaciers
divergent boundary – boundary where two or more tectonic plates are moving apart (tension)
earthquake – shaking of the Earth’s crust along the boundary of a plate
erosion – the process that happens when glaciers, running water, waves, or wind carry away the soil and rocks on the Earth’s
surface
faults – a crack in the earth’s surface where movement has occurred; boundaries of plates
fossil – a part of a once living thing or a trace of an organism preserved in rock
human impact – the affect that human actions have on the Earth
igneous rock – rock formed from molten Earth material, such as granite or basalt
inner core – a solid ball of iron and nickel at the center of the Earth
mantle – the second layer of the Earth located between the crust and the outer core
metamorphic rock – rocks that form from preexisting rocks as the result of heat and pressure changes
mid-ocean ridge – a huge chain of underwater volcanic mountains that form at a divergent boundary
outer core – the layer of liquid metal located between the mantle and the inner core
plate tectonics – the theory that Earth’s crust is made up of individual plates that slowly move in various directions due to the
internal forces on the mantle
rock – is any naturally formed solid in the crust made up of one or more kinds of minerals
rock cycle – the changes and process that rocks undergo over time
sedimentary rock – rocks formed from the accumulation of sediment, which is squeezed and cemented together over time
sliding boundary – boundary where two or more tectonic plates slip (shear, twists, tears, or pushes) past each other, also known
as strike-slip or transform boundaries
tectonic plate – the Earth’s surface is divided into several broken pieces, similar to puzzle pieces; these tectonic plates are in
constant motion upon the Earth’s surface
trench – the deepest feature of the ocean floor; formed at subduction zones at convergent boundaries
volcano – opening in the Earth’s crust where an eruption takes place
weathering – the process by which rocks are broken down by water, wind, or living organism
2nd nine weeks -Oceanography Unit
ANTICIPATED LEARNING
Virginia Standard of Learning: 5.6 a, b, c
The student will investigate and understand characteristics of the ocean environment.
Key Concepts:
a. geological characteristics
b. physical characteristics
c. ecological characteristics
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Oceans cover about 70 percent of the surface of Earth.
Important features of the ocean floor near the continents are the continental shelf, the continental slope, and the continental
rise. These areas are covered with thick layers of sediments (sand, mud, rocks).
The depth of the ocean varies. Ocean trenches are very deep, and the continental shelf is relatively shallow.
Ocean water is a complex mixture of gases (air) and dissolved solids (salts, especially sodium chloride). Marine organisms are
dependent on dissolved gases for survival. The salinity of ocean water varies in some places depending on rates of evaporation
and amount of runoff from nearby land.
The basic motions of ocean water are the waves, currents, and tides.
Ocean currents, including the Gulf Stream, are caused by wind patterns and the differences in water densities (due to salinity
and temperature differences). Ocean currents affect the mixing of ocean waters. This can affect plant and animal populations.
Currents also affect navigation routes.
As the depth of ocean water increases, the temperature decreases, the pressure increases, and the amount of light decreases.
These factors influence the type of life forms that are present at a given depth.
Plankton are tiny free-floating organisms that live in water. Plankton may be animal-like or plant-like. Animal-like plankton are
called zooplankton. Plant-like plankton (phytoplankton) carry out most of the photosynthesis on Earth. Therefore, they provide
much of Earth’s oxygen. Phytoplankton form the base of the ocean food web. Plankton flourish in areas where nutrient-rich
water upwells from the deep.
Vocabulary
abyssal plain – the seafloor that is relatively flat; average depth is 2.5 miles
basin – a large deep section of the ocean
continental rise – an accumulation of sediments at the base of the continental slope
continental shelf – the broad edge of a continent that forms a shelf extending underwater from the shore to a
depth of approximately 200 meters
continental slope – starts at the edge of the continental shelf and angles down to the deep ocean floor
currents – concentrated flow of water due to temperature, salinity, or sediment differences
Gulf Stream – a major warm ocean current flowing northeastward off the east coast of North America
marine organisms – life found in the oceans, salt water organisms
ocean trench – a long, deep, narrow canyon in the seafloor plain; deepest feature in the ocean is the Mariana
Trench (7 miles)
phytoplankton – minute, floating aquatic plants
plankton – floating plant and animal organisms in the ocean
salinity – the amount of dissolved salts in the water; average is 35 ppt (parts per thousand)
sediments – sand, mud, and rocks
tides – the regular rise and fall of the ocean water levels due to the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun
upwells – wherever surface flow is away from an area, upwelling occurs. If horizontal surface flow brings insufficient
replacement water into the area, then water must come from beneath the surface, it must upwell, to replace water
that was removed. This condition may occur in the open ocean or along the margins of continents
waves – the up and down movement of water caused by the energy of the wind
zooplankton – animal-like plankton