Shaina Lo
River Cities of Asia
URST 300
Chen, Lestz, Morrison
A Glimpse of Two Cities
Through History, Urban Development, and Environmental Science
Sitting on my bed now as I write this paper, I find it difficult to condense every
sense of my time abroad into one word document. I know I cannot transcribe all my
experiences down. But by combining the time I had in two regions and the knowledge
from the readings and research I have done, I would like to discuss the historical, urban,
and environmental aspects of my favorite cities we visited: Lijiang and Vientiane. From
the moment we arrived in Lijiang, I fell in love with the place. Not only was the scenery
was breathtaking, but also seeing myself in this type of environment was something I had
not yet experienced before. There was a real sense of beauty in the mountains that I stood
so close to, which I did not get the same feeling previously. The image I projected of
China was finally visible for me. The time leading up to Vientiane was a duration highly
anticipated for me. For a long time, I wondered how I would assimilate into a place that
my ancestors called home. The experience there was far greater that anything I would
have imagined. Although originally I did not know much about these two places, each
town left me in amazement and the desire to learn more. Although slow to develop in
comparison to the other cities visited, the challenges Lijiang and Vientiane faces in
moving forward must have a historical, urban, and environmental aspect to why the city
is what it is today.
Like Stuat-Fox in his article “On the Writing of Lao: Continuities and
Discontinuities,” I felt the difficulty in deciding what Lao history is exactly. “There is a
problem in identifying the object of study. Is Lao history the history of those territories
inhabited by ethnic Lao, or of the state of Laos as it has existed over various times under
various names.”1 From the very beginning of development to present day Laos, the
country has been a region pushed and pulled in every direction by rulers of more
powerful neighboring countries and reigns. Known as the “Land of a Million Elephants”
Martin Stuart-Fox, “On the Writing of Lao History: Continuities and Discontinuities”
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 24 (1993): 106
1
Laos has had its fair share of principalities starting with the Khmer domination in the 14th
century to the control of the Siamese in the 18th century, which is mostly what the
boundaries of the country is in modern times.2 The French intervened, however, in the
1870s and negotiated with Siam to leave land east of the Mekong creating the official
country of Laos.3 The people and government struggled between the domino effect of
communist rule and the U.S. influence later on. Even though originally a neutral country
in the beginning of the Vietnam War, the Central Intelligence Agency of U.S. forces
secretly began to train anticommunists, mostly Hmong, who were eager to see help and a
chance they could win for freedom, thus the name The Secret War came out of these
haunting years. These actions, however, only led to increased threats and bombings by
the Vietnamese communists, and after the U.S. armies pulled out, the people of Laos
crumbled to Pathet Lao, and eventually the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR)
was born. Since then, Laos has been quiet, going under the radar in the southeast Asian
economy and development, other than the most recent influence of mainly China. Just in
this short summary of the history of Laos, one can tell how controlled the country has
been. Partially for this reason, I find the inhabitants and natives always very calm.
My interactions with the workers of Vayakorn Hotel and elsewhere were extremely
pleasant as Lao seem to have a “no problem” mentality.4
In Lijiang, I also found a similar experience with interesting, yet quiet and
humble, people around me. Surrounded by three countries in the southwestern most part
of China, Yunnan, and especially Lijiang, includes a variety of cultures, people, and
religion. Its complex, yet intricate architecture visibly stands out because many of the
parts come from a mixture of cultures, which make Lijiang a unique crossroad. When I
researched on the history of Lijiang, I could not find a clear article or document out there
on the history itself. Instead, I read about fragments of different centuries and ethnicities
that came into Lijiang and stayed or left with some culture influence behind. In tourist
David K. Wyatt, “Siam and Laos, 1767 – 1827” Journal of Southeastern Asian History
4, no. 2 (1996), http://www.jstor.org/stable/20067439 (accessed February 9, 2012).
3
Nick Ray, Joshua Samuel Brown, Daniel Robinson, Richard Waters, and China
Williams. Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos & the Greater Mekong (Hong Kong: Lonely Planet
Publications Pty Ltd, 2011), 275.
4
Ray, Nick, Joshua Samuel Brown, Daniel Robinson, Richard Waters, and China
Williams. Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos & the Greater Mekong 276.
2
sites about the city, the ancient Lijiang city was named “Dayanxian County” where the
Naxi Nationality resided.5 During our excursion, we even got to see some Naxi women in
the early morning relaxing in the Black Dragon Pool seen below.
Figure 1. Naxi Women at Black Dragon Pool
Lijiang, was a crossroad for trade especially in the Southern Silk Road and as a market
between Yunnan and Tibet. Therefore, the Naxi nationality was a “nationality good at
absorbing the culture of other nationalities.”6 However, what was important to the history
was that all these cultures influence only heightened the city’s importance. In 1997,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO, declared
Lijiang as a world heritage site with a their justification of inscription as: “Lijiang is an
exceptional ancient town set in a dramatic landscape which represents the harmonious
fusion of different cultural traditions to produce an urban landscape of outstanding
quality.”7 Because of where it is situated, Lijiang receives much attention to its
authenticity and diversity. Although, Vientiane may also have diversity, its authenticity is
a different type than Lijiang’s, which stays in touch with their best feature, culture,
instead of the need to develop.
There is no question that Lijiang and Vientiane both have a dynamic and blurring
history that quite frankly is hard to distinguish among the many different cultures and
religions, which have been in the area for centuries. Sure, the region may contain a
majority of Chinese in Lijiang and Laotians in Vientiane. But beyond these people, there
are sub groups and ethnicities that should not have to be categorized as the same type of
5
6
7
“Lijiang.” http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/English/chinatours/lijiang.htm
“History of Lijiang.” http://www.muztagh.com/china-history/lijiang.htm
“Old Town of Lijiang.” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/811
people. But even now, it is apparent how diverse history has affected the way each city
has developed and is still developing.
In one of our last discussions we had in the Vien Dong Hotel, our class group
debated about the challenges of maintaining cultural traditions in a world where
developing is a fundamental key to surviving among the fittest. In the countries of Asia,
especially in China, I always felt the people around me pushing everything forward. The
professors at most, if not all, of the universities we attended for lectures spoke about the
new generation, the renovation, how to create a booking economy, the steps a city has
taken already, the steps a city will take to become even greater, etc.. It just seemed as if
the word “innovation” was part of their everyday language. At times I felt myself even
getting a little frustrated at how narrow their views were on development. City planners
and museum tour guides could tell me what, where, and when a city was planning on
building or renovating in the next ten years. But when asked about other important
aspects, such as the effect it will have on the people, society, or the environment, no one
really had the clear-cut answer I wished for. Always competing to move forward can be
successful at times, but there comes a moment when investing in these massive goals can
be unfavorable to the country’s well being.
As a country that rarely gets noticed in the Southeast Asian part of the world,
Laos is “fortressed by a chain of high mountains.”8 It has long been a country slow to
economical growth and enterprise, and even to this day it struggles to compete with the
powerhouses of the east. Because of this reason, Laos has had a harder time with their
urban development across the region. Along with the high humidity and heat, one other
thing I noticed immediately after arriving from the megacities of China, was that the
country definitely presents itself as one of the poorest nations in the world. Vientiane, the
capital, had an airport, but it was so small there was not even a conveyor belt for our
suitcases down to the airplane. It was an unusual sight for sure, something I had never
seen before. But it was not only that incident that defined my view of Laos. On our bus
ride from the airport to our hotel, I immediately noticed other countries’ influences on
8
Nick Ray, Joshua Samuel Brown, Daniel Robinson, Richard Waters, and China
Williams. Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos & the Greater Mekong (Hong Kong: Lonely Planet
Publications Pty Ltd, 2011), 272.
Laotian society. Chinese logos filled the signs of buildings and future development
projects. I caught a glimpse of this construction sign, as seen in Figure 1, which shows
Chinese engineering projects within Vientiane (the capital of Laos!). I also remember a
conversation I had with one of the professors, which we discussed about China as Laos’
new best friend. With China’s growing population, the government has almost been
forced to take migrant workers who are overflowing into the city to other places, such as
Vientiane, which could use some workers to build for the city.
Figure 2. Chinese Companies in Vientiane
Vientiane also had clear colonialism remnants from French rule with some French street
names. On a night we spent at the Vayakorn Hotel, I was fortunate enough to have a short
conversation with one to the workers at the reception desk. We talked about his time in
Vientiane and how he liked it in comparison to other cities he had been too. He told me
that Vientiane along with Luang Prabang, a city we did not get to visit, are the most
developed countries of Laos. It made sense at the time to think Vientiane should be the
most industrialized since it is the capital. But the more I thought about it, the more I
began to think how sad, yet amazing, it was, that the most developed city in Laos was one
of the least developed cities we visited on the entire trip. After the debate we had on the
bus ride about developing to move forward or stay visibly cultured, I really had a hard
time deciding whether that was one characteristic I liked or didn’t like as much about
Vientiane. Not only did I think about liking it or not, but I also thought if this
characteristic helped or hurt the development process. Because urban development was
not as far as other cities, the culture and authentic feel to the area made a distinctive and
lasting impression on me.
Earlier I mentioned how the quiet and undeveloped qualities of Lijiang really
stuck to me. Like Vientiane, I believe it is for these reasons that I enjoyed these two cities
the most. It is funny now how mountains, rice fields, and farmers had a larger impact on
my experience than seeing the fast growing developing cities like Shanghai or
Chongqing. Lijiang and Vientiane both had their culture present. But they also had
qualities that attracted westerners and foreigners. The cities function and thrive because
of tourism, since the cities give visitors what they are looking for. “With the opening of
the Lijiang region to foreign visitors in 1985, the tourism scene evolved from an
extremely primitive destination at the end of a tortuous two day bus or jeep drive from
Kunming, to a boom-town.”9 Jack D. Ives correctly writes that tourism is what makes
these two cities what they are ultimately known for, and the people who live there benefit
from tourist attraction with their gift shops and restaurants. Many [locals] repl[ied] that
they viewed the staging of the horticultural convention as a business opportunity”10 This
success makes one question everything about leaning towards more development or
slowing down that pace since clearly mostly everyone still wants to see and experience
the real Lijiang and Vientiane as they are. There is no reason to make huge changes that
might risk destroying success if people are benefiting from the results. Success, just like
the work “poor,” as we talked about in our discussion can mean different things to
different people.
My knowledge of Environmental Studies previous to this course was limited, and
what I had originally thought this genre of study consisted of was far more than I
assumed. I did not realize that there were countless characteristics to be considered on the
issue of the environment other than the influence on climate change and pollution. During
the semester long class, but especially the time abroad, I not only had to consider the
trouble we all face as the environment suffers, but I also had to take into account the
people who were innocently affected by myriad changes to their surroundings and
everyday life. By integrating all three components together, I was able to explore the
correlation between the social, socio-economic and political aspects with environmental
Jack D. Ives, “Himalayan Perceptions: Environmental Change and the Well-Being of
Mountain Peoples,” Himilayan Journal of Sciences 2 (2006): 158
10 Derek R. Hall, Tourism and Transition: Governance, Transformation, and
Development (Cambridge: CABI Publishing, 2004): 190
9
issues with a better understanding. In cities like Lijiang and Vientiane, government input
and policies that battle environmental issues are difficult to establish because it is always
hard to take into account the social and economic factors tied to these conversation
policies.
One environmental problem not only Vientiane, but also the country of Laos,
faces is the construction of dams across the Mekong River. The dams, built mainly from
Chinese money, may help the economy in the present. However, the affect that these
structures will leave on the people, animals, and surrounding areas will ultimately be
detrimental to the way Laos is moving forward. Dams will affect the upstream migration
of fish, which make up 47-80% of the Mekong River11, will hurt the natives who depend
on this source of income to feed their stomachs. Along with fishery problems, the
sediment flow formerly making its way down the river into the basin will be blocked
creating higher risks “downstream erosion and undermine the productivity of riverside
and flood agriculture.12 In their article about the environmental problems in Asia, Howes
and Wyrwoll writes, “The environmental and social impacts of the proposed dams will
endure for decades… Outcomes will be broadly and unevenly distributed across
stakeholders, time, and countries.”13 Hydroelectric power collected from the dams will
not even go entirely to the country’s own use. Instead, it is sent to the neighboring
economies hungry for more cheap supply of electricity. Not only is Vientiane trying to
become more westernized and developed in an undeveloped country, the capital along
with Laos itself is taking steps forward but moving backwards at the same time
Lijiang’s environment seems to not have as many visual environmental problems
as Vientiane does. At first glance, I imagined since the scenery was so important to
Lijiang’s culture, that the people and government would naturally take good care about
their surroundings. However the more I thought about this aspect, the more I began to
11 Dugan, P., C. Barlow, A. Agostinho, E. Baran, G. Cada, D. Chen, I. Cowx, J.
Ferguson, T. Jutagate, M. Mallen-Cooper, G. Marmulla, J. Nestler, M. Petere, R.
Welcomme and K. Winemiller. 2010. Fish Migration, Dams, and Loss of Ecosystem
Services in the Mekong Basin. AMBIO 39(4): 344–48.
12 Kummu, M. and O. Varis 2010. Basin-wide Sediment Trapping Efficiency of
Emerging Reservoirs Along the Mekong. Geomorphology. 199: 181–97.
13
Stephen Howes and Paul Wyrwoll, Asia’s Wicked Environmental Problems (Tokyo:
Asian Development Bank Institute, 2012), 13
wonder how much influence tourists visiting impacted their environment. Over twenty
thousand people visit Lijiang every day on average. How do tourists respond in an area
such as this? At Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, do workers find a lot of trash and how do
they deal with that? In an article by Ke Xuedong in 2008, the Chinese government
banned against using white plastic bags in the Yunnan province, which the author is
quickly notes Lijiang had already implanted that ban five years ago:
Plastic bags are nowhere to be seen, and have been replaced by non-woven cloth
bags. From a distance they look much like plastic bags in size, colour and
thickness, but they are made of environmentally friendly materials and can be
reused. Nowadays, if you walk around Lijiang carrying a plastic bag, people will
look down on you. The plastic bag has something of a pariah status. 14
This success is surely something to be proud about. Banning white plastic bags ended up
becoming one of Lijiang’s positive environmental ideas, whereas Vientiane, but Laos, in
particular, struggles with the ideas of dams.
Vientiane and Lijiang both embody the typical “Asian” city that a tourist would
prefer to see while traveling abroad, thus I admired each city. But it was not just these
qualities that define how they are. I fell in love with the people and everything around
me. Leaving both these cities was a hard moment for me. With urban development
moving faster every year, it will be interesting to come back to places like these in the
future and observe how much change has occurred over the years. It’s amazing now how
much has happened in the last month though. I can’t believe it myself when I think about
it. A year ago from today I would never have imagined in my wildest dreams I would be
able to travel all over Asia to four different countries (five, if you count Canada when we
had a layover) and see a whole new world. I am so lucky and fortunate to have been able
to be a part of this whole experience. I’m looking through all my pictures now, and its
bringing back so many memories. The random snapshots that I took in the span of a
month and of everything I saw all has a meaning and story now. It has just finally, really
hit me how much this whole trip has meant for me. I had been waiting all semester for
this trip – those two weeks leading up to the program, the Hartford portion – and now it is
Ke Xuedong, “Lijiang’s War on ‘White Pollution’” China Dialogue, February 28,
2008. Accessed July 7, 2012.
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
14
all over already. At night when I would try to write about the event of my day, I
sometimes found myself not even remembering what happened earlier in the morning
with everything that we did. How could everyday feel so long, yet the month of June was
the shortest month I ever experienced? One day we were in China touring Shanghai and
the planning hall, and the next, we were already cruising down the Mekong River into
Vietnam. The places I have been to, the things I have seen, the people I have met, and the
food I have eaten – every thing has been like a dream to me. A dream I will never forget.
Citations
Dugan, P., C. Barlow, A. Agostinho, E. Baran, G. Cada, D. Chen, I. Cowx, J. Ferguson,
T. Jutagate, M. Mallen-Cooper, G. Marmulla, J. Nestler, M. Petere, R. Welcomme and K.
Winemiller. 2010. Fish Migration, Dams, and Loss of Ecosystem Services in the Mekong
Basin. AMBIO 39(4): 344–48.
Hall, Derek R., Tourism and Transition: Governance, Transformation, and Development
Cambridge: CABI Publishing, 2004.
Howes, Stephen and Paul Wyrwoll, Asia’s Wicked Environmental Problems (Tokyo:
Asian Development Bank Institute, 2012), 3–39
Ives, Jack D., “Himalayan Perceptions: Environmental Change and the Well-Being of
Mountain Peoples,” Himilayan Journal of Sciences 2 (2006).
Kummu, M. and O. Varis 2010. Basin-wide Sediment Trapping Efficiency of Emerging
Reservoirs Along the Mekong. Geomorphology. 199: 181–97.
Logan, William., Colin Long, and Roz Hansen, Disappearing ‘Asian’ city – protecting
Asia’s Urban Heritage in a Globalizing World (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press),
page number
Muztagh Travel Service. “History of Lijiang.” http://www.muztagh.com/chinahistory/lijiang.htm
Nick Ray, Joshua Samuel Brown, Daniel Robinson, Richard Waters, and China Williams.
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos & the Greater Mekong. Hongkong: Lonely Planet Publications
Pty Ltd, 2011
Regent-China Today Tours. “Lijiang.”
http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/English/chinatours/lijiang.htm
Stuart-Fox, Martin. “On the Writing of Lao History: Continuities and Discontinuities”
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 24 (1993): 106-121
Xuedong, Ke. “Lijiang’s War on ‘White Pollution’” China Dialogue, February 28, 2008.
Accessed July 7, 2012. http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Center.
“Old Town of Lijiang.” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/811
Wyatt, David K, “Siam and Laos, 1767 – 1827” Journal of Southeastern Asian History 4,
no. 2 (1996), http://www.jstor.org/stable/20067439 (accessed February 9, 2012).