LEXICO - SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF VIEWPOINT COLUMN
OF PUNCH NEWSPAPER
BY
SULE ESTHER OYIZA
MATRIC NO: 07/15CD172
AS ESSAY SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS) IN ENGLISH
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMIITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN,
ILORIN,
KWARA STATE, NIGERIA.
APRIL, 2011.
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CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the requirements for the award
of Bachelor of Arts (Hons.) degree in the department of English of Faculty of Arts, University of
Ilorin, Nigeria.
………………………………………………………
DR. T.A. ALABI
PROJECT SUPERVISOR
…………………………………..
DATE
……………………………………………………
DR. S. T. BABATUNDE
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
……………………………………
DATE
…………………………………………………..
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
……………………………………..
DATE
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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to God Almighty, the source of all good things, in him I find
fulfilment. He is the one who has made me stand on a solid rock and fills my heart with the light
of life.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indeed grateful to my creator, the pillar of success, for his unfailing love and mercy
upon me and also, for giving me the grace to complete this course.
My profound gratitude extends to my credible and hardworking supervisor Dr. T. A.
Alabi, who has been there to correct and encourage me to ensure that I exhibited the best of my
ability in my work.
Many thanks go to my caring and understanding parents, Mr. and Mrs. J. O. Sule, who
gave me all their support financially, morally, and spiritually. I am indebted to you. God bless
you abundantly.
My special thanks go to my siblings Joy, Daniel and my big brother Shola, your love and
prayers have empowered me.
My special appreciation goes to my wonderful and impressive course mates, Solomon,
Prof, Ope, Yetunde, Alfa, Bukola, Pelumi, Bolaji, Eric, Keren and Bimpe. They were of great
help to me, showing concern about my progress. They advised me at the right time and never let
me down. May God increase your wisdom.
Finally, my gratitude goes to all my loving pastors, for their countless prayers and
encouragements. May the Good Lord meet all their needs according to his riches in glory.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Table of Contents
v
Abstract
vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
The purpose of the study
4
1.2
Justification
4
1.3
Scope and delimitation of the study
5
1.4
Methodology
5
1.5
Conclusion
6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
Introduction
7
2.1
What is Nigerian English?
7
2.2
Standard English
10
2.3
Lexis
12
5
2.3.1 Characteristics of words
14
2.4
15
Semantics
2.4.1 Word Meaning (Lexical Semantics)
17
2.5
19
Theories of meaning
2.5.1 Types of Meaning
21
2.6
22
Lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English
2.6.1 Causes of Lexico-semantic variation
23
2.6.2 Types of lexico-semantic variation
24
2.7
27
Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
Introduction
28
3.1
Presentation and analysis of data
28
3.1.1 Transfer
29
3.1.2 Analogy
32
3.1.3 Acronym
32
3.1.4 Semantic extension of generalization
36
3.1.5 Coinage
37
3.2
Discussion
38
3.3
Conclusion
40
6
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
Introduction
41
4.1
Summary
41
4.2
Findings
42
4.3
Conclusion
42
REFERENCES
43
7
ABSTRACT
Facts have been established by researchers and they justify that the English used in
Nigeria is a variation of the British English (BE) and not a deviation from the norms of BE. This
is an attempt to investigate the extent to which Nigerian columnists use the lexico-semantic
features of Nigerian English for their reportings. This work has adopted the lexico-semantic
variation of Nigerian English as identified by Babatunde (2001) as our working parameters
alongside our data which are randomly selected dailies in the months of April, May, August,
November and December 2010. It is evident that the socio-cultural background of the Nigerian
people is captured by Nigerian English. Nigerian speakers find it preferable to use the Nigerian
English, with all its local flavours because most of them are incompetent in the use of English
language and also because of the socio-cultural context of the Nigerian society.
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CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL BACKGROUND
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Change is often a noticeable occurrence in all living languages. Language speakers
exhibit dynamism in various ways. Every language is meant for a particular group of people
however, there are occasions where a language features in a foreign environment making new
words emerge and some lexical items might even be lost overtime in such language.
Obviously, man who makes use of language to communicate and convey meanings has
the nature of change in him. This seems to account for the change experienced in language.
Language is used to enhance effective communication and the effectiveness of its usage
goes a long way to generate the effective meaning of expressions.
Consequently, the context often times is an important factor to consider when one is
expressing himself.
Every country in the world has people who make use of languages which helps to
perform several functions of which Nigeria is not an exception.
Nigeria is a country, which has people with diverse languages and cultures. English
language is one of the language spoken in Nigeria and it serves several functions for instance,
business transaction, education, administration, the language of the press, the language of
entertainment and also the official language etc.
9
As a matter of fact, English has actually come to stay in Nigeria considering the prestige
being bestowed on it by Nigerians and apparently, a very high percentage of people in Nigeria
will not relent in protecting the interest of English language, simply because it helps to bridge the
gap of socio-cultural differences among the Nigerian people and also promotes interpersonal
relationship.
However, Nigerian columnists use English to convey their messages to their audience.
Some of their expressions are being captured by Nigerian English that is, the variety of English
used in Nigeria. The audience gain adequate information of the messages being highlighted.
The columnists, use to a large extent, employ some features of Nigerian English while
they write and they are always conscious of the fact that there is a Nigerian English.
Talking about lexico-semantic, it means lexis and meaning. It appears to be generally
recognised that frequent changes and modifications occur at the lexico-semantic level in Nigeria.
A large number of lexical items and expressions of British Standard English (BSE) have
undergone semantic change in Nigerian usage. Some lexical items in Nigeria English are
innovated through coining, compounding, blending processes and so many others.
Lexis is stock of words used in a language, it is also known as lexemes. It simply means
words. It is present in the lexicon of a language.
According to Jackson & Amvela (2007) “lexis are stock of words in a given language,
that is its vocabulary or lexicon”. The study of lexis is known as lexicology.
10
However, lexis is always found in the context it exists. Lexis actually builds up the word
structure of a language.
On the other hand, semantics simply means the study of meaning. The researches that
have been made on semantics by scholars have often bothered on how meaning can be generated
in a particular language. However, though there have been so many theories of meaning which
have been propounded, not one of them can adequately account for how meaning of words can
be inferred in a language this is as a result of the abstract and complex nature of meaning.
Odebunmi (2006) asserts that, “the engine of language is meaning; without meaning,
there is no language in fact the essence of language is to generate or convey meaning”.
From the above assertion, it is quite clear that meaning is vital and an integral part in any
language. It plays an important role in every language.
Pei (1966) propounds that “semantics is the study of meaning in language, including
relations between language, thought and behaviour”. This suggests that meaning and language
have relationship in bringing out the true value of a language.
1.1
THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will attempt to project the extent at which lexis and meaning of Nigeria
English vary from the British Standard English in the viewpoint column of the punch newspapers
of the some selected dailies.
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Also, it will identify the various types and causes of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian
English that can be seen in the viewpoint column of the punch newspapers, to see the extent to
which Nigerians who write the articles seen in the viewpoint columns being examined, use the
lexico-semantic variation in the Nigerian English.
1.2
JUSTIFICATION
This research is studied to portray and clarify the point that Nigerian English is not a
deviation from the British Standard English but rather a variation of it. Therefore, an attempt
with be made to examine the Nigerian English words which are used to express the experiences
and thoughts of the Nigerian people.
Some scholars like Adegbija (1988), Kujore (1990), Bamiro (1991), Odumuh, (1984,
1987, 1998) and many others have carried out extensive studies in the area of lexis semantic
variation of Nigerian English and their contributions have been considered very useful,
especially to the Nigerian people who have little knowledge about Nigerian English.
This study makes an effort to generate relevant use and findings about Nigerian English
which will be of great benefit to English students who want to know about Nigerian English and
also to the Nigerian People generally.
1.3
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
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It is important to emphasize that this study: lexis-semantic analysis of viewpoint
column of punch newspaper will not include every aspect of the Nigerian English concept
because this will be very broad to analyse.
This study shall limit itself to the lexico-semantic variation of the Nigerian English which
are obtainable in the selected dailies in the months April, May, August, November and
December 2010.
1.4
METHODOLOGY
The mode of our study shall be the collection of newspapers published in the months;
April, May, August, November and December 2010. It is important to note that, not all the days
of the weeks in the months aforelisted will be analysed, but some dailies will be selected
randomly for the purpose of the analysis.
Emphasis will be made on the words or phrases and their meanings. The analysis shall be
done through established parameters, that is, the various features of lexico-semantic variation in
Nigerian English in the columns will be classified according to the type of lexico-semantic
variation they belong to. The lexico-semantic variation that will be adopted for our analysis is the
one identified by (Adegbija, 1989) cited in (Babatunde, 2001).
BACKGROUND OF SELECTED NEWSPAPER
THE PUNCH
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The punch newspaper was established in 1973 by two friends, James Aboderin, and
accountant and Sam Amuka a columnist and editor at the Daily Times. Its headquarters is in
Lagos. Sam Amuka became the first editor of the Sunday punch. In November 1976, a few years
after the first print of its Sunday edition, the duo started printing its trademark daily newspaper.
Both editions were designed to favour a friendlier apolitical approach to news reporting,
combining footages of social events with everyday political news. It is a paper that is read
throughout the duration. The paper sustains itself by delving into broad issues that interests a
myriad of people.
1.5
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have given a general introduction of our research, stating the purpose
and procedures of our study.
We shall proceed to the next chapter which is the review of our literature where we shall
look through what some scholars have said about semantics, lexis, theories and types of meaning
and other terms that are related to this study.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will present a review of the concept of Nigerian English and also
Standard English. We will explore the concept of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English.
Also, we will look through some scholars’ definitions of the two concepts that are
pertinent to our study that is lexis and semantics.
2.1
WHAT IS NIGERIAN ENGLISH?
Nigerian English can be seen as the variety of English spoken in Nigeria. English
language has over the years undergone several evolutions, it has been adopted to suit and
accommodate the socio-cultural differences of the speakers that use it.
According to Medubi (2007, p. 12) “English came into Nigeria with the British settlers
(in the sixteenth century) whose expansionist programmes saw them colonizing a good number
of countries all over the world”.
Consequently, the social, political, economic, religious events have greatly influenced the
variety of English in Nigeria giving it its own form and structure.
Medubi(2001, p. 12) asserts that:
English in Nigeria displays some aspects of the social and cultural life
of the speakers to such a degree that researchers have tagged it.
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Nigerian English… researchers has tagged it Nigerian English… thus
another evidence of the nativisation or indigenisation of the English
language in the world.
Babatunde (2001, p. 144) articulates that:
English as a second language in Nigeria is expectedly a
phenomenon that is assessed and reassessed continually. The
major reasons are its history and the social, political and
economic contexts of its operation in Nigeria.
Odebunmi (2006) opines that “English is spoken in Nigeria as a second language. It is the
language that we learn consciously unlike our native languages that we acquire subconsciously”.
Jowitt (1991) cited in Banjo (1995, p.209) articulates that:
The problems associated with precisely determining the number of
varieties of English that can legitimately be claimed to exist in
Nigerian English (PNE), thus basically addressing an inclusive
definition of Nigerian English.
Babatunde (2001, p. 145) citing Tomori (1981) asserts that “English language in Nigeria
has had an unbroken history of 131 years”.
Banjo (1995, p.211) submits that:
16
The difficulties likely to be encountered by Nigerian learners of
English in the light of the mother tongue or to explain (by the weak
hypothesis of contractive been committed in the process of
learning.
Bamgbose (1971, p.42) cited in Alabi (2005, p. 138) asserts that:
The major differences between English in Nigeria and English in
other countries are to be found mainly in spoken form of the
language. The greatest influence on the pronunciation of English
by Nigerians is the sound system of the vernacular language.
From the above assertion, it is quite clear that Nigerian English is unique and maintains
its own features.
Consequently, certain socio-cultural variables influence the variety of English in Nigeria.
Since realities are expressed in another language, certain differences from the standard English
are bound to exist (Odebunmi, 2006).
Banjo (1995, p. 213) affirms that “It is however, much easier to identify a standard
written Nigerian English than its spoken equivalent”.
One of the factors influencing the survival of the English language in Nigeria is the
indigenous languages (Babatunde, 2001, p. 149).
17
Alabi (2005, p.138) submits that “Nigerian English can be looked at as a variety of
English which is socially acceptable across the cultures of the various ethnic nationalities in
Nigeria”.
Thus, English will continue to hold some functions in many organizations in Nigeria
since it is a language that fosters interpersonal relationship among people in a multilingual
context of which Nigeria is a typical example.
2.2
STANDARD ENGLISH
Obviously, not all the varieties of English used in the world can be considered as
standard.
Bex (1996) suggests that “proponents of Standard English are implicitly claiming that it
is a variety to which all English speakers can aspire”.
Medubi (2007, p. 12) observes that “Standard English can be said to be the core
repository of lexical items and grammatical units at once supranational and comprehensible to all
users of all the language no matter the race or subject matter”.
Streven (1983) affirms that:
Standard English is a particular dialect of English, being the only
non-localized dialect of global currency without significant
variation, universally accepted as the appropriate education target
18
in teaching English, which may be spoken with an unrestricted
choice of account.
McArthur (1998) puts in his words that “the term “Standard English” is potentially
misdealing for at least two reasons. First in order to be self explanatory, or really ought to be
called the grammar and the core vocabulary of educated usage in English”.
Furthermore, he says that several Anglophone nations have their own Standard English.
The agreed goals of learning of Nigerian speakers of English are to be able to internalize the
linguistic competence underlying the performance of British Standard English (Banjo, 1995, p.
211).
In Streven (1983) Standard English is valuable for three reasons.
(i)
It provides a way of accounting for a range of observable distinctions and
attitudes.
(ii)
It offers a label for the grammatical and lexical components, at beast , of the
teaching core undertaken by the tongue or as a foreign or second language.
(iii)
It constitutes the unifying element within the enormous diversity of the English
language.
Yunus (2001, p. 78) opines that:
On the international plane, many have argued for the reasonability
and naturalness in the evolvement of the various national
19
standards, native and non-native. Many others have cast their vote
for the preservation of the English Standard.
2.3
LEXIS
Lexis is an independent linguistic form which exists in a language. They are words of a
particular language. Since lexis also means words the two terms will be used synonymously in
the course of our review.
Words are like tools that speakers of a language use in order to communicate. They are
present in all living languages. The words in languages occur in levels and they are able to form
structures.
Words have functions and meanings. They share some features with the language that
accommodate them. However, some words are coined and new ones are created having existing
or new meanings.
Jackson & Amvela (2007) put that “the notion of word is central in the study of
lexicology”.
Halliday & Yallop (2007) submit that “definitions of word have often begin with the
sense of “possess” or “own” and many people may indeed think of this as the fundamental or
ordinary meaning of the word”.
The Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary (2001, p. 1374) defines a word as “a single unit
of language which means something and can be spoken or written”.
20
Saeed (2007) states that “a word consists of two part; one part is its sound form. The
other part is its meaning”
Jackson (1988) asserts that “a word is an ambiguous term and we use it in many ways
even in ordinary language”.
His assertion clarifies that a word is capable of two or more meanings and this makes
human beings lack effective communication when ambiguous words are used in utterances of
sentences.
Introduction of new words can often be given a semblance of dating, however well we
may realize that the first recorded instance may not be the first use (Strang, 1970, p. 95).
According to Bolton & Crystal (1969) words are things uttered split up, when we utter a
word we are concerned with the transmission of meaning. Words tend to move from a wider to a
narrower range of meaning.
Pei (1966) defines lexis as those aspects of linguistics forms which grammar can’t
handle, it is the organization of vocabulary.
Generally, we speak and write with words. Their usages help to generate meanings.
Every language has its own stock of words.
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2.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF WORDS
We look out for some features before a word can be said to be what it is. Certain ways
have been derived by grammarian and the linguists in English to allow us recognise a word when
we see it.
The morpheme is what is being built up to form a word, although in English a morpheme
can also be a word this is called free morpheme.
Jackson & Amvela (2007) identify four characteristics of words:
First, the word is uninterruptible unit. When elements are added to
a word to modify its meaning, they are never included within that
word. They respect the internal stability of the word and are added
either of the end as suffixes….
Second, the word may consist of one more morphemes. When it
consists of one morpheme only, then it cannot be broken down into
smaller meaningful units. E.g. dog, hand, man….
From the foregoing, it appears that any element or morpheme that is being
added to as word automatically gives additional information or meaning about the
word.
Furthermore, Jackson & Amvela (2007) consider words as occurring typically in the
structure of phrases, which built up to become clauses to build sentences.
22
It is worthy to note that each word as its own group of word class or a part of speech
which it belongs to. It is notable in English to see words belonging to more than one word class,
this occurrence regards the word as a separate one (Jackson & Amvela, 2007).
The usage of stress pattern of a word often suggests the class it belongs.
2.4
SEMANTICS
As a matter of fact, semantics is a concept that is abstract in nature. It simply means the
study of meaning. Semantics deals basically with the mind to give appropriate meaning to a word
or an expression.
According to McGregor (2009, p. 129) the notion of meaning in linguistics concerns that
which is expressed by sentences, utterances and their components by language, the message or
thought in the mind of a speaker is encoded in a way that sends a signal to the hearer in a way
that the message can be got. He explains further that, the context which is being communicated
in a language is meaning which makes a language effective.
McGregor’s view about meaning points out that, both the speaker and the hearer
contribute in giving appropriate meaning to a word or an expression in a language.
Saeed (2007) opines that “Semantics is exclusively concerned with the meanings of
linguistic entities such as words, phrases, grammatical forms and sentences, but not with the
meaning of actions or phenomenon”. He points out for meanings of words and sentences can’t be
studied in dependently of how they are actually used in speech.
23
Davies & Elder (2004, p. 48) assert that:
Semantic is that part of linguistic description which deals with
meaning, it is often divided into lexical semantics dealing with the
meaning of word and grammatical semantics, how morpheme
meanings are combined by grammar to form the meanings of
utterances.
The above assertion marks that when an utterance or a sentence is made, its meaning is
derived when viewed as a whole and not at an independent meaning or words.
Babatunde (2000, p.1) suggests that “semantics is coined from a Greek verb which means
to signify, it is the study of meaning, which seeks to convey and classify experience through
language”.
Lehtonen (2000) argues that “Meanings are in an environment certain position at the core
of human life… meanings have diversified irreversibly, perhaps we all struggle to make some
kind of sense of our lives”.
McMachon (1994, p. 170) cited in Singh (2005) states that “meaning is somewhat
dynamic and fluid property”. This suggests that meanings also shares characteristics with
language.
Blake & Moorhead (1993) state that:
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Meaning resides shadowly in the morpheme less so in the word,
less so again in the phrases or sentence or paragraph, but meaning
only comes to its fullest flower in the context of an entire way of
life.
Fodor (1977, p. 1) observes that “semantics is thus an area within linguistics and the
study of semantics exhibits the dual goal common to all linguistic research”.
Semantics and the notion of meaning in our review, ascertains that semantics is basically
the study of meaning while meaning is something that is paramount to all languages.
2.4.1) WORD MEANING (LEXICAL SEMANTICS)
Words have meanings but we discovered from our study that sometimes the sequential
arrangement of letters that constitute a word is responsible for the meaningfulness of a word.
However, every language has its own rule(s) of how letters should be arranged when forming
word since language operates in a systematic way. Thus words that are used in a language must
also conform to the operating system in such a language.
McGregor (2009) observes that “words often have connotation, unstable meaning
associations such as emotional overtones”.
Fromkin, Rockman & Hyams (2007) contribute that “meaning of many words is a
function of the morphemes that compass it… the meaning of words is part of the linguistic
25
knowledge”. They said further that speakers of a language are the negotiators of meanings of
most words and all morphemes, making the word meanings to vary from time to time.
Saeed (2007) agrees that “phrases and sentences also have meaning of course, but an
important difference between word and meaning on the one hand and phrase and sentence
meaning on the other concerns productivity”.
Saeed’s view reflects that meaning of sentences and phrases are tied to the meanings of
words that constitute them.
Jackson &Amvela (2007) say that:
… the meaning of a word involves at least, its reference to an
entity in the word of experience, as well as in the sense relations it
contracts with other words in the vocabulary and the collocation
relations that may hold between it and other co-occurring words.
The above assertion states the fact that words do not exist in a vacuum, they are always
employed to achieve certain aims. This means that the meaning of a word must be connected to
the word itself. Therefore, a competent speaker of a language must know how and what word to
be used in any context.
Singh (2005) opines that “words actually tend to be polysemic, which means that they
individually carry different meanings or at the very least, whole language of shade of meaning”.
26
Hall (2005, p. 69) submits that “the meaning of a word, then can be seen as the concept,
encoded in mentalise, with which word form is conventionally associated”.
Lehtonen (2000) asserts that “if words and sentences acquire meanings through
differences that is, through note equalling something else they do not have a meaning in
themselves”.
Lehtonen’s assertion holds that meanings of words are flexible, which ever way meaning
is being explored in words it can always change its base that is, occupy a new domain through
the words that express it.
2.5
THEORIES OF MEANING
Quite a number of linguists have contributed greatly in bringing our generalizations as
regards the various theories of meaning in order to explore the concept of meaning.
This section will attempt to present submissions that some linguists have made on the
theories of meaning.
Yule (1996) cited in Adedimeji (2003, p. 57) agrees that “the essence of the theories of
meaning is to provide frame works from which meaning can be attracted and inferred”.
Akmajian et al. (2008) propound four theories of meaning, which we examined below.
1)
The denotational theory of meaning: This relation between a linguistic expression and
what it refers to is variously caused denotating linguistic reference and semantic reference what
27
an expression means can be linked to the actual object which it denotes. In cases where two
objects share the same meaning these results to having the same denotation (Synonymy).
2)
Mentalist theories of meaning: The meaning of each expression is the idea (or ideas)
associated with that expression the minds of speakers. However, this theory cannot be adopted to
predict anything specific because it is too vague.
3) The sense theories of meaning: Akmajian et al. (2008) citing Frege (1892) argues that ideas
is not meaning since ideas are subjective whereas meaning is objective. This theory has its
unique way of operation and it is probably the dominant view in linguistic semantic theory.
4) The use theory of meaning: This theory was formulated to improve upon the previous
theories that were propounded. It is worthy of note that, there is no theory of meaning that has
given a clear notion of how meaning can inferred.
Furthermore, Fodor (1977) propounds ideational theory of meaning and he says:
The truth of an ideational theory inevitably depends on what ideas
are taken to be and how the associative relation between
expressions and idea is defined. For an ideational theory to be
plausible it would therefore have to be integrated with a much
more sophisticated idea… on which is applicable to all types of
expression….
28
In line with the above submission, it is quite important to note that both the speaker and
the hearer must understand how meaning can be inferred in communication so as not to lose the
message that should be conveyed.
Other theories which was not discussed in this work include the pragmatic theory, refer
entail theory of meaning, behavioural theory of meaning, image theory of meaning, semiotic
theories, mention but a few.
2.5.1 TYPES OF MEANING
There are different types of meanings with various names given to each type. Leech
(1974) cited in Adedimeji (2003, p.58) identifies several types of meanings. According to him,
meanings are conceptual/denotative, emotional/connotative, collocative, reflected, affective,
stylistic and thematic.
Denotative meaning is the literal, basic, plain or central meaning of a word. It is relatively
stable and its scope is not open-ended and indeterminate. Connotation meaning, on the other
hand, is the meaning people associate with words. It is the personal or cultural meaning which is
open-ended and indeterminate.
Collocative (from collocation or “placing together” of words or phrases) meaning is the
meaning of a linguistic form in relation to the other forms expressed with it in a given context.
Reflected meaning is considered as the meaning is the sense of a word or sentence evoke in
multiple conceptual situation.
29
Affective meaning arises when language is used to reflect the personal feelings or
attributes of the speaker to the audience. This type of meaning features at the levels of politeness,
indignation and rudeness. While stylistic meaning concerns the relation of the linguistic form to
social or situational circumstances. Like geographical location, subject-matter, medium, sex, age,
etc. Thematic meaning refers to the manner of organising messages in terms of ordering focus
and emphasis.
2.6
LEXICO-SEMANTIC VARIATION IN NIGERIAN ENGLISH
Lexico-semantic variation of a language often occurs when a language has two or more
varieties in use. There is bound to be lexical and semantic variation from the native speakers’
form of language use to other forms.
However, the English spoken in Nigeria has reflected the socio-cultural features of the
Nigerian society through some lexis that have been imported into it.
Babatunde (2001, p. 109) contributes that:
The most productive and vibrant area of change is the level of lexis
and meaning. It is here that pragmatic reasons compel the English
language user especially on the outer circle to flout existing
conventions of reference and thus stretch the English language to
meet the needs of the new culture into which the language has been
transplanted.
30
Odebunmi (2006) suggests that “Socio-cultural differences between English people and
Nigerians allow new lexical items to develop”. New lexical items will also gain meanings
definitely, therefore, the more new words are formed the more new meanings are being
generated.
2.6.1 CAUSES OF LEXICO-SEMANTIC VARIATION
Adegbija (1989, pp. 165 – 177) cited in Babatunde (2001, p. 109) proposes six causes of
lexico-semantic variation which are:
i)
Socio-cultural differences between English and Nigerian people.
ii)
The dynamics of the pragmatics of a multilingual context.
iii)
The exigencies of differing discourse constraints.
iv)
Media influence.
v)
The standardization of idiosyncrasies and errors (e.g trouble shooter and man of timber
and calibre).
vi)
The predominantly formal character of the English taught in Nigeria.
2.6.2 TYPES OF LEXICO-SEMANTIC VARIATION
According to Babatunde (2001, p. 110) the causes of lexico-semantic variation in
Nigerian English have led to their types.
31
Many authorities have identified different lexico-semantic typologies. However, most of
their submissions are similar. Adegbija (1989) identifies five, Bamiro (1994) identifies ten, Alabi
(2000) identifies five, Odebunmi (2006) identifies five and Babatunde (2001) identifies seven.
We will discuss in this section, the relevant types of lexico-semantic variation with close
reference to Babatunde (2001, pp. 110 – 115). According to him, the following categories are
predominant: transfer, analogy, acronyms, semantic extension or generalization, narrowing,
coinages, loan words, hybridization and Idioms.
1.
Transfer: In transfer cases, a meaning foreign to English but present in the MT is
directly translated into English. Examples include (Nig. E) branch, house-head, kobo-carrying
suitors, bush meat outing ceremony (Babatunde, 2001, p. 110).
2.
Analogy: Words in the category are formed on the basis of partial resemblance with
words that are already existing in the mother tongue or English (Odebunmi, 2006).
Adegbija (1989, p.172) cited in Babatunde (2001, p. 110) submits that:
Analogy is when new words are formed on the basis of partial
likeness or agreement in form or in sense with already existing
words either in the mother tongue or in English.
Some examples identified are pee-less, naira-ful, kobo-less, lesson teacher (a private
tutor).
32
3.
Acronyms: Which Odebunmi (2006) calls it abbronyms and describes it as words formed
letters or some parts of existing words, phrases or terminologies, which may not be pronounced
Example identified by Babatunde (2001, p. 111) JAMB (Nigeria: Joint Admissions Matriculation
Board) NEPA (Nigeria: National Electrical Power Authority) ASUU (Nigeria: Academic Staff
Union of Universities). Acronyms are always represented with capital.
4.
Semantic Extension or Generalization: This occurs when semantic scope of an
expression is made to enlarge beyond its usual limit. In this case, a set of wider referents
develops from an erstwhile narrow sense.
The word ‘Uncle which has a French Origin, was used inform for mother’s brother, but
now it has moved from a reference any older person. Other examples of semantic extension
include chase (to go after a woman), escort (to see a guest off), machine (motor cycle) locate (to
assign to a work place after graduate from school) (Babatunde, 2001, p. 112).
Odebunmi (2006) says semantic shift or extension are some that are present in standard English
having their meanings narrowed, broaden or sometimes shifted completely in Nigerian English.
Words like-chase escort, machine etc. derive their meanings as a result of this process.
5.
Narrowing: It happens when the semantic scope of a word or utterance which is now
restricted to a part of that class in English language. So many English words have been subjected
to this process (Babatunde, 2001, p. 112).
33
6.
Coinages: This happens because of the necessity to accommodate new experiences,
feelings, thought, patterns, modes of life etc. Examples are; half current, bukateria, house girl,
carry over etc. (Babatunde, 2000, p. 49) Kachru (1985) cited in Babatunde (2001, p. 113)
describes coinage better, he says that, contextually determined collections and hybridization are
categories of coinages. They are attempts made by language users to flout the codified conditions
of reference as they seek to continually express themselves in spite of their limited level of
competence in English language.
7.
Idioms: This is another exciting mode of change in contemporary English usage. English
language suddenly becomes the means of expressing an indigenous culture in an ESL context.
Example, the old woman shudders at the tale about a tattered basket (Babatunde, 2001, p. 114).
2.7
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have been able to review the literature relevant to our variables and the
next chapter will help to express clearly the purpose of the research.
Some of the types of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English that have been
reviewed will be deployed as tools for the analysis of our data in chapter three.
34
CHAPTER THREE
DATA ANALYSIS
3.0
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we reviewed the literature relevant to our variables, and then we
came up with our working parameters that will be used in analysing our data.
In this chapter we shall use the type of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English as
examined by Babatunde (2001, pp. 110 - 115) which are; transfer, analogy, acronym, semantic
extension or generalization, narrowing, coinage and idiom.
3.1 Presentation and analysis of Data
In our data, we found out that the columnists of our selected dailies often use the features
of Nigerian English to present some of their reporting and stories. The reason for this is that, the
British English cannot capture all the socio-cultural experiences of the Nigerian people.
Our analysis will take a start from transfer and the other elements that were found in our
data will come after it.
35
3.1.1 TRANSFER
This is when meaning foreign to English but present in the mother tongue is directly
translated into English. There is transfer of meaning, transfer of Nigerian pidgin features. Our
data will present transfer of culture and transfer of Nigerian pidgin features.
Analysis
…every evening in the house of rich Alhajis …. (April 6th, 2010)
Alhajis is the plural form of Alhaji, it is a title in the Islamic religion. It denotes a Muslim
man who had made a pilgrimage to Mecca. An Alhaji is a man with social prestige because he
had returned from the pilgrimage. It is transferred from the adopted form of Arabic word in
Hausa language and now it is being used in Nigerian English.
…. who invited him to government to come and chop…. (April 8th, 2010).
The word chop is a Nigerian pidgin, which means eat in British English. This shows an
instance of transfer of pidgin features into Nigerian English. ‘To come and chop’ is an
expression that helps to depict the mixing together of British English and Nigerian pidgin in the
Nigerian context.
…Baba reportedly said. (May 3rd, 2010)
Baba is a word that belongs to the Hausa and Yoruba languages. It is being used in this
context to refer to the former President of Nigeria Obasanjo. The English equivalent is father.
36
The word is used sometimes in the reporting or stories in Nigerian newspapers in other to reveal
the socio-cultural context of the discourse.
….if the chief priests of amala and gbegiri politics were alive …. (May 3rd, 2010)
Amala, it is a name for a particular kind of food of the Yoruba people in Nigeria
generally. Occasionally, writers or columnists in Nigeria use words that are from the indigenous
languages because there is no direct equivalent of such words in the British English.
Gbegiri, is a type of local soup that is mostly eaten by the Yoruba people of Nigeria. It is
made from beans and often with Amala. However, there is no equivalent word for it in British
English.
Like a post-modern abiku .… (November 4th, 2010)
Abiku is a Yoruba word that captures the concept of re-incarnation in the Yoruba society.
The Yoruba people believe that a person can come back to life after his or her death. Abiku is a
name given to a child born over and over again. The word is being transferred from the context
of the Yoruba mythology to Nigerian English.
… face-me-I-face-you roadway. (November 16th, 2010)
When two things are opposite each other, it is often referred to as face-me-I-face-you in
the Nigerian context. It applies mostly to rooms that are at opposite direction. The meaning of
the phrase was directly translated from Yoruba language to English language.
37
‘wetin be fast lane?’ …. (November 16th, 2010)
Wetin be is a Nigerian pidgin, its English equivalent is ‘What is’. Quite a number of
Nigerians who are not competent in English often use Nigerian pidgin to communicate in a
formal setting.
‘…Papa deceiving pikin….’ (November 30th, 2010)
Papa and pikin belong to the Nigerian pidgin. The English equivalent of Papa and pikin
is father and child respectively.
… Some danfo drivers…. (December 3rd, 2010)
Danfo in this context refers to a particular kind of bus that is commonly used in Lagos
State of Nigeria for commercial transportation. Danfo’s cost of transportation is cheaper than the
sophisticated buses.
…sit down and wait for the Oyinbo man…. (December 9th, 2010)
In the Nigerian context, oyinbo is a word used to generally refer to a white person.
Oftentimes, the Yoruba and the Igbo people use the word, since it is believed that the speakers of
these languages coined the word and now it has been transferred to the stock of Nigerian English
words.
3.1.2 ANALOGY
38
Analogy is also a type of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English. It has really
helped in generating stock of Nigerian English words. A word generated through the process of
analogy has partial likeness in form or in sense with the mother tongue or English words that are
already in existence.
Analysis
… Visionless leadership. (November 1st, 2010)
Visionless in this context is got from the base word, vision visionless now means lack of
vision.
… goodluckism sentiment …. (December 9th, 2010)
Goodluckism is got from the name Goodluck, the president of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. As a result of the creative nature of Nigerians in language use, they have been able to
create new words from existing ones. Goodluckism is apparently used in the Nigerian context to
capture the concept, attitude, ideology etc. of Goodluck, perhaps because he often obtains good
luck.
3.1.3 ACRONYM
Acronym is a very common type of lexico - semantic variation in Nigerian English with
various sectors in the country making use of different acronyms. They take the form of nouns
when they appear in structures since they are names of organizations, political parties, banks etc.
39
Columnists and other writers make use of acronyms, perhaps to avoid repetition of their
full meanings. Some acronyms are not common; therefore they become difficult for the readers
to know what they stand for.
Analysis
The ACF lamented…. (April 6th, 2010)
This is an acronym used in the Nigerian context; it is standing for Arewa Consultative
Forum.
… LGA in Ondo State…. (April 6th, 2010)
LGA is standing for Local Government Area. Every state has its own Local Government
Area.
LASTMA officials…. (April 6th, 2010)
In the Nigerian context, LASTMA stands for Lagos State Traffic Management Authority.
KAI officials. (April 6th, 2010)
KAI is a recent acronym in Nigeria. Its full meaning is Kick Against Indiscipline.
…. He led EFCC in the fight against corruption…. (April 15th, 2010)
EFCC is the name of an organization that checks corruption in Nigeria. EFCC stands for
Economic and Financial Crimes Commission.
40
…. IG of Police. (April 15th, 2010)
IG is standing for Inspector General.
… the despised INEC boss with Jesus Christ …. (May 3rd, 2010)
INEC is a commonly used acronym in Nigeria. INEC stands for Independent National
Electoral Commission.
… LNG Project…. (May 24th, 2010)
The full meaning of LNG is Liquid Natural Gas.
NLNG what a magnificent idea; …. (August 2nd, 2010)
It is an acronym that is often used in the petroleum sector in Nigeria. Its full meaning is
Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas.
Details of payment made to the NNPC. (August 2nd, 2010)
It is also an acronym related to the petroleum Sector in Nigeria. It stands for Nigerian
National Petroleum Company.
… PHCN workers. (November 1st, 2010)
PHCN is standing for Power Holding Company of Nigeria.
…NYSC exemption certificate can testify to this. (November 4th, 2010)
41
NYSC is a very popular acronym. It is associated with the educational sector in Nigeria.
Its full meaning is National Youth Service Corps.
… ASUU and said to threaten their state governments. (November 4th, 2010)
ASUU is an acronym of as educational organization in Nigeria. It stands for Academic
Staff Union of Universities.
… PDP controlled? ((November 4th, 2010)
PDP is an acronym of one of the political parties in Nigeria. Its full meaning is Peoples
Democratic Party.
…NSE imbroglio ((November 22nd, 2010).
NSE stands for Nigerian Stock Exchange.
… SEC must be committed and honest ….(November 22nd, 2010)
SEC is standing for Securities and Exchange Commission.
… like her counterpart at the CBN. (November 22nd, 2010)
CBN stands for Central Bank of Nigeria.
… this action by party leaders and ACN…. (December 3rd, 2010)
ACN is an acronym of a political party standing for Action Congress of Nigeria.
42
3.1.4 SEMANTIC EXTENSION OR GENERALISATION
It is often noticeable in the Nigerian context of English usage for speakers to extend or
generalize the meaning of English words. The reason for this may be the difference in the sociocultural context of the British and the Nigerian society.
Analysis
… ‘Juicy’ contracts awarded …. (May 3rd, 2010)
Juicy is an adjective used to qualify a fruit, that is a fruit having a lot of juice, it is now
being extended in meaning in this context to qualify contracts that are highly profitable.
... to dream of shooting himself into power. (May 19th, 2010)
In this context, the semantic meaning of shooting has been extended. ‘Shooting’ here
means having access to power, and not that a person gets a gun and shoots himself into power.
All that the person does is to put in all his effort to ensure that he gets power.
If the NNPC was raped mercilessly… (August 2nd, 2010)
Raped is used in this context not to mean the act of forcing someone to have sex, but its
meaning has been extended o capture the act of being badly treated.
…. Baby boom generation…. (November 1st, 2010)
43
The word ‘baby’ as used in this context does not mean child, however, its meaning has
been extended to mean the early stage of a process or development.
3.1.5 COINAGE
This is a type of lexico - semantic variation in Nigeria English that gives room for ways
of life, feelings, experience of the Nigerians to fully capture.
Analysis
… The Niger Delta (ogogoro) …. (April 6th, 2010)
Ogogoro is a locally distilled gin, which has a variety of other names. It is a coined word,
which is being used, in the Nigerian context.
If we talk of area boys …. (April 6th, 2010)
Area boys in British English mean ruffians, thugs and rogues. In the Nigerian context the
boys or young men that go about the street and other places to get themselves involve in criminal
acts or other mischievous activities. They cause a lot of chaos in the society.
… when no big man is allowed to operate …. (May 24th, 2010)
In the Nigerian context, when a man is wealthy and highly influential, he is often referred
to as big man and the society respects his personality.
… iron lady’s era …. (November 22nd, 2010)
44
Iron lady in this context, refers to a lady that commands people’s respect as a result of her
braveness, status or position. She is so bold and can confront virtually everybody.
However, iron lady’s era refers to an era that is being governed or ruled by an iron lady.
3.2 DISCUSSION
In our analysis, we carried out a classification of our data into their appropriate lexicosemantic features of Nigerian English.
Our analysis explored five of the features of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian
English, which are; transfer, analogy, acronym, semantic extension or generalization and
coinage. No datum was found to capture idiom and narrowing.
Obviously, acronym is the most prominent feature of lexico – semantic variation in
Nigerian English in our analysis.
Columnists, for some reasons, adapt the use of acronyms often as against other features
of Nigerian English.
First, the columnists are conscious of the fact that majority of the readers of these
newspapers are not highly competent in English language. However, they devise means through
the use of acronyms to communicate effectively with their readers and they also choose
appropriate words in order not to impede comprehension of their messages.
45
Second, acronyms help to draw the previous knowledge that is shared between the writers
and the readers. An acronym tends to be remembered easily by readers who come across it in the
pages of newspapers.
Also, acronyms used in Nigeria are got from names of banks, associations, political
parties, organisations etc. Hence, the readers are familiar with them.
Finally, acronyms are greatly employed in the reportings of columnists because of the
need to create brevity.
However, analogy has the least number of data as viewed in our analysis. The reason for
this is linked to the low level of linguistic competence of majority of Nigerian speakers of
English.
Consequently, transfer, as a feature of Nigerian English is also notable in our analysis.
This feature helps to accommodate some words present in the indigenous languages to the
Nigerian English. This reveals that there is bound to be language interference when two or more
languages are in use in a particular language community.
In essence, our analysis establishes the fact that features of lexico-semantic variation in
Nigerian English help the columnists to situate their reportings adequately in the socio-cultural
context they are expressing.
46
3.3
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we presented the analysis of our data by grouping them alongside their
appropriate elements.
We later analysed our data, which was followed by a discussion of the analysis. We will
therefore present the summary, findings and conclusion in our next chapter.
47
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
INTRODUCTION
We carried out the analysis of our data in the previous chapter. We will present the
summary, findings and conclusion of our study in the chapter.
4.1
SUMMARY
In chapter one, we focused on the general introduction, purpose, justification, scope and
delimitation, methodology of our study and the background of our selected newspaper.
Chapter two, we reviewed the literature relevant to our variables, which included;
Nigerian English, lexis, semantics, theories and types of meaning, types of lexico-semantic
variation in Nigerian English. The chapter explored our working parameters that we used for the
analysis of our data.
We proceeded to chapter three which is the analysis of our data. We grouped the data
alongside their appropriate elements. Transfer, analogy, acronym, semantic extension or
generalisation and coinage were the elements used for our analysis.
The findings from our analysis are what would be discussed in the next section of our
work and finally the concluding section.
48
4.2
FINDINGS
It is quite clear that columnists use features of Nigerian English to enhance effective
communication with their readers.
The study revealed that language is affected by culture and context, making such as a
language appropriate for use within the socio-cultural context of the people that use it.
Furthermore, the research work has shown that Nigerian English helps to project its
speakers as Nigerians.
Lastly, it was discovered that acronym is the feature that was the most prominent in our
study. It had eighteen examples that captured it.
4.3
CONCLUSION
An attempt has been made in this study to show the extent at which lexico-semantic
features of Nigerian English are used in the selected dailies.
Indeed, Nigerian English is actually a variety of English that paves way for its speakers to
express their thoughts, feelings, experiences etc. within their socio-cultural environment.
Finally, majority of speakers of Nigerian English are not highly competent in English
language. This accounts for the reason why the localised, nativised and indigenised variety is
preferred to the standard variety in the Nigerian context.
49
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