Environmental Impact of Multi-Annual Drought in the
Jordan Kinneret Watershed, Israel
MOSHE INBAR * & HENDRIK J. BRUINS **
* Department of Geography, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
**Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Blaustein Institute for Desert Research,
Department Man in the Desert, Sede Boker Campus, 84990, Israel.
Abstract
Floods and droughts are most common among natural disasters, and the number of
victims and economic damages are larger than those caused by other natural disasters
like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The drought that affected Israel between 1998
and 2001 was of unusual climatic and hydrologic severity in the last 125 years in
northern Israel. The climatic drought affected the water flow of the Jordan river and
lake Kinneret level, which fell to –214.90m (below sea level), the lowest lake level in
historical periods. The annual flow of the Jordan river in the drought period was the
lowest in the 50 year hydrological record.
Human interference by water pumping and diversion exacerbated the negative drought
natural impact, causing land degradation such as the drying of wetlands and salinization
of freshwater aquifers. The failure to introduce drought contingency planning and
sustainable water resources management has so far affected agriculture and nature
conservation.
Introduction
Floods and droughts are the most common in spatial terms among the diverse
natural disasters. Moreover, they cause more victims and economic damage than
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (Inbar, 2001). Vulnerability to drought is increasing
in many regions, as growing populations intensify the pressure on water resources.
Prolonged droughts are a major factor in land degradation processes and they affect
extensive geographical areas. As a natural hazard, drought may strike in any climatic
region, but its occurrence is more frequent in regions with dry climate such as Israel
(Bruins, 1993; Amiran, 1994).
Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate, resulting from a deficiency of
precipitation over an extended period of time, usually a season or more (Wilhite, 2000).
Droughts build up gradually and passively as the cumulative effect of below average
precipitation in a given area during a certain time period. Drought has both temporal
and spatial dimensions, but boundaries may be fuzzy. Although the beginning and end
of a drought is not always easy to determine, they have to be clearly defined (Wilhite
and Glantz, 1985), in order to enable feasible management within an administrative
governmental framework. The World Meteorological Organization defines a drought
as a period of two consecutive years in which precipitation is less than 60% of normal
in an area covering at least 50% of a geographical region (WMO, 1978). A definition of
drought should be specific for each region in relation to its impact and management.
1
Droughts are among the most expensive disaster. The global economic losses
from natural disasters increased from US$ 5 billion in the 1960s to more than US$ 50
billion in the last decade of the 20th century (Fig.1); (Munich Re, 2000). The 1988
drought in the western United States was the costliest natural disaster in US history for
the time-range considered and its impact is likely to continue. During the 2002-growing
season drought in Texas caused severe damage to agriculture, resulting in financial
losses estimated at $316 million (Fannin, 2002).
Natural drought is a prevailing hazard in the Near East (Bruins, 2000). The
available resources of fresh water in Israel are rather small in comparison with most
other countries in the Near East (Table 1).
This study deals with the issue of drought in Israel in relation to land
degradation and water resources management in the watershed of the Jordan River and
Lake Kinneret. The effects of prolonged droughts in the Lake Kinneret watershed,
which is by far the most important source of surface water in Israel, are examined. After
some rainy years the public as well as decision-makers tend to forget the hazard of
drought and the importance of assessing the effects of such major event.
Background to Droughts in Israel
The climate in Israel covers all the dryland zones – hyper-arid, arid, semi-arid
and sub-humid (Unesco, 1979; Middleton and Thomas, 1992; Bruins and Berliner,
1998), as defined by the P/ETP index (P = precipitation and ETP = potential
evapotranspiration). The average rainfall in the northern basin of the River Jordan is
700 mm and the potential evapotranspiration reaches 1600 mm; the P/ETP ratio is
therefore 0.41, being in the semi-arid range. Only in the high mountainous areas of the
Jordan River catchment rainfall is more than 800 mm and this region is sub-humid to
humid ( Fig. 2). Interannual rainfall variations in the region are quite large, which is not
surprising in view of Israel position at the northern transition of the largest planetary
desert belt on Earth.
In terms of economic losses droughts form a major component- about 30%- of
natural disasters in Israel Floods did cause extensive damage during the period
1948-1998 (Inbar and Agami, 1998), but the direct and indirect costs of prolonged
droughts in Israel during the period 1998-2001 can probably be regarded as the major
natural disaster in recent years, affecting both its water resources and its agricultural
economy.
Meteorological conditions during drought periods in Israel are often
characterised by a northward shift of the depression tracks and/or a decrease in the
number of depression systems in the eastern Mediterranean region. These systems
move generally from west to east over the Mediterranean Sea. The northward shifting
of depression systems may be regarded as a symptom rather than a cause of the scarcity
of precipitation in this region. The westward shifting in the atmosphere of the major
upper level trough, on mean 500 mb charts, or its abnormal deepening leads to
persistent dry and warm south-westerly upper flows which are the main reasons for the
deflection of rain bearing depressions to the north-east (Levi, 1963).
Drought in Israel is characterised by low precipitation in the winter rainy
season. However, sometimes it does not cover the entire country. For example during
the 1931/32 rainfall season, the average annual rainfall in the semi-arid to sub-humid
centre and north of Israel was more than 20% below the average, while the Negev in the
south received rainfall above the annual average amount (Ashbel, 1950).
2
Droughts in Israel during the last 150 years
In the last 150 years, there have been three consecutive drought years for every
50 years period, according to the long term rainfall measurements series of Jerusalem
(since 1846), Shechem-Nablus (since 1922), Beyrouth (since 1876), Kfar Gil’adi (since
1921) and other stations for recent periods of 50 to 60 years (Table 2). The average
standard deviation was determined for consecutive multi-year drought (Figs. 3,4). The
longest consecutive drought period was for six years from 1956/57 to 1961/62.
An evaluation of rainfall variability in Israel was made in relation to drought
(Bruins, 1999). According to Amiran (1994) the average rainfall in drought years is
30-40% less than the long-term average. The overall average rainfall in Jerusalem for
the period 1846-1993 amounts to 556 mm. The three wettest years during this period
occurred in 1873/74 (1004 mm), 1877/78 (1091 mm) and 1991/92 (1134 mm). The
three driest years occurred in 1950/51 (247 mm), 1959/60 (206 mm) and 1962/63 (227
mm), as noted by Amiran (1994).
Zangvil (1979) studied the Jerusalem rainfall record for the period 1846-1954.
Applying a 10-year running mean, he distinguished a relatively wet period with
above-average rainfall during 1868-1911 (690 mm) and a relatively dry period during
1912-1937 (412 mm). By evaluating individual precipitation years in relation to
drought for Jerusalem during the period 1846-1993, Amiran (1994) distinguished six
dry periods of three consecutive years or more in which at least one year shows a
precipitation decline of more than 33% (Table 3).
Hydrologic drought in Israel, analysing 14 different streams in the
central and northern part of the country over the period 1937 to 1984, was studied by
Ben-Zvi (1987). The principal variables are (1) severity in terms of decline in water
flow, (2) duration of hydrologic drought and (3) geographic extent. Severe and
extensive hydrologic drought in Israel occurred in 1950/51, 1958/59, 1972/73 and
1978/79. These droughts affected the majority of the 14 studied streams. Continuous
multi-annual shortages in streams occurred during the periods 1955-1961 and
1971-1979, albeit with variations concerning the beginning and end of those periods
with respect to the various streams. A third multi-annual hydrologic drought period
during 1967-1972 was limited to a few streams in central Israel.
The 1998-2001 drought period in the Upper Jordan watershed
The most extreme meteorological drought in northern Israel during the last 125
years was in fact the most recent drought of 1998/99-2000/01. This can be concluded
from the long-term rainfall series of Beirut (Lebanon) and all the rainfall stations in
northern Israel (Table 2). The average standardized value or relative deviation (z score)
was –1.30 or 64% of the average rainfall for the 3-year period, the highest value in the
recorded period. The second most extreme period was during 1931/32-1933/34 with a
standardized value of –1.05 (Table 4). The rainfall in 1998/99 as recorded in Kfar
Gil’adi was very low with 431 mm, which is only 53% of the average annual rainfall.
The mean annual volume of flow in the Jordan River is 399 x106 m3 and the
standard deviation 142 x106 m3. The coefficient of variation is 0.26 ( Ben Zvi, 1987).
An analysis of the Jordan River hydrological record shows that the 1999/2001 period
was the lowest for a relatively prolonged period of three years (Table 5). The average
3
standardized value for that period was –1.43, an extreme value as compared with
former prolonged drought years. For a single year the highest standardized value was –
1.62 for the 2000/2001 season or the last year of the period and not in the lowest rainfall
year- 1998/1999. The lowering of the mountain water table during the three year period
caused a reduction in the discharge of the springs that feed the river flow, and therefore
the prolonged dry season caused the lowest water discharge at the end of the period.
The impact of the extreme 1998-2001 drought on Lake Kinneret
Lake Kinneret, the biblical Sea of Galilee, is a critical component of the
integrated and centrally controlled water system of the Jordan River (Figs. 5,6). Lake
Kinneret is situated in the Rift Valley and its water level at maximum capacity stands at
-208.9 m (below sea level), above which flooding would occur in the town of Tiberias
and other villages around the lake. The minimum acceptable level, the so-called red
line, was set at -213 m. Pumping of water below that level might cause a severe
deterioration in water quality of the lake, particularly in regards to salinity.
The Kinneret watershed area is 2730 km2 of which the lake covers an area of
170 km2, with a maximum holding capacity of almost 4,100 million m3. Each meter
represents ca. 170 million m3 of water. An average amount of 450 million m3 used to be
pumped from the lake annually. The overflow into the Jordan River at the southern end
of the lake is controlled by a sluice gate in order to keep the lake level at desired levels
(Grinwald and Bibas, 1989).
The main water diversion system of Israel is the National Water Carrier,
completed in 1964, which draws annually about 300 million m3 of water from Lake
Kinneret, eventually increasing to about 450 million m3 when the lake is full. In
addition some 22 million m3 of saline water from springs are diverted around Lake
Kinneret into the lower Jordan River. Following the peace treaty with the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan, Israel now provides 50 million m3 of water yearly to Jordan from
the lake sources. Lake Kinneret forms the pivotal part of the national water system,
which also incorporates the Coastal Aquifer and Western Mountain Aquifer, and
begins in the northwestern part of Lake Kinneret.
The only natural surface water reservoir in Israel, lake Kinneret, serves as the
yearly storage of water received in its basin during the rainy season. In 1991, after three
consecutive drought years, the water level fell to -213 m below sea level. The
exceptionally wet year that followed in 1991/92 refilled the lake to its maximum
storage capacity of -208.9 m. But during the severe three-year drought of 1998-2001
the water level fell to -214.90 m, the lowest lake level in historic periods (Fig. 7). Low
levels have negative impacts on nutrient release, and beach resorts and touristic sites
find themselves several hundreds meters from the shoreline. Hence the relationship
between water quantity in the lake and water quality is becoming increasingly more
precarious. It should be pointed out that the natural salt content of Lake Kinneret in the
past was about 400 mg/l (or ppm), which is above the accepted national standard and
World Health Organization guideline of 250 mg/l. However, the diversion of saline
water from springs discharging into the lake brought down the salinity to acceptable
levels, between 205 to 230 mg/l, considered to be a remarkable achievement (Ministry
of Agriculture, 1973; Grinwald and Bibas, 1989; Bruins, 1993).
The combined effect of water pumping and drought led to a decline in lake
levels. Salinity increased during low lake levels from 200 ppm of chlorides to 280 ppm.
The Jordan river water flowing into the lake contains by comparison only 20 ppm of
4
chlorides. Although a salinity of 280 ppm chlorides can be tolerated for domestic and
some agricultural uses, it is considered high for irrigation of citrus groves and
subtropical fruits. Such irrigation water also causes soil degradation by increasing soil
salinity. Partially treated domestic sewage water, also used in agriculture, has an even
higher salinity content of about 400 ppm chlorides. The recent appearance of the blue
toxic alga Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, previously unknown in the lake, may indicate
deterioration of water quality (Hadas et al, 2002). Low levels of Lake Kinneret also
have a negative impact on nutrients release from the lake bottom sediments. (Fig. 8).
The impact on aquatic environments in Lake Kinneret watershed
The effect of drought on protected aquatic environments seems critical. The
total remaining wetlands in Israel are only 850 ha from a total of 28,000 ha at the
beginning of the 20th century (Ortal, 1999). During recent droughts, most wetlands
were affected by the decline in the underground water level and the reduction in water
allocations due to the general shortage in the water resources.
On the northern Kinneret shoreline, the lagoons on the Bteiha plain dried
completely, with the lowering of the lake water level and groundwater in the adjacent
areas. At high lake levels the total lagoon area of about 40 ha, is an essential fish
breeding environment, as well as habitat for endemic aquatic species. A pilot
restoration project involved the digging of a small area during the 2001 summer near
the Meshushim River, one of the tributaries of Lake Kinneret, in order to study the
feasibility of creating lagoons during prolonged water lake low level (Fig. 9).
Most of the rivers draining into Lake Kinneret are ephemeral and the flow in the
lower reaches is fed by small perennial springs. The deep entrenched canyons with
scenic waterfalls and series of rapids and pools are nature reserves which receive
certain water allocations during the dry season. Water reservoirs, built for irrigation in
the Golan Heights, impound river water flow during major winter floods. The reduction
in peak flows is accentuated in drought years when there is no overflow from the
reservoirs. The pronounced effects downstream were reduced peak flows. A notable
effect was an increase in channel and bank vegetation, as there was no cutting,
trimming or clearing of vegetation (Inbar, 1990).
The impact of droughts in Israel on water resources and land
degradation
The unique development in Israel of a government-controlled centralised water
supply system has, paradoxically, not prevented over-utilisation of water resources.
The area of irrigated land increased from 17,000 ha in 1948 to about 205,700 ha in
1990. Excessive quantities of water were sold to the agricultural sector, particularly
during the 1970s and 1980s. Total water consumption in the 1980s and 1990s ranged
from a high of 2,024 MCM in 1985 to a low of 1,442 MCM in 1991. The latter decrease
in 1991, was caused by (1) severe drought, and (2) the rather sudden public realisation
of the alarming state of Israel's dwindling water resources, following a report by the
State Comptroller (1990). The authorities reacted by enforced cutbacks in water supply,
particularly in the agricultural sector.
Since extraction has been higher than natural and artificial recharge, water
reserves in Lake Kinneret and in aquifers were gradually depleted. Against this
background of over-exploitation, the impact of natural drought on land degradation has
become increasingly severe for a series of reasons:
5
(1) Drought led to a severe decline in water levels in Lake Kinneret and the two main
aquifers.
(2) Reduced quantity of water causes deterioration of water quality, particularly
characterised by a rise in salinity.
(3) Use of more saline water leads to salinization of soils through irrigation.
(4) During drought years, the urban sector continues to receive water and produces
wastewater, while the agricultural sector uses significantly less conventional water.
Increased use for irrigation of partially treated wastewater, with significantly higher
salt content causes soil degradation.
The multi-year meteorological drought in the late 1980’s caused water levels to
drop below their respective red lines in Lake Kinneret and the two main aquifers. These
red lines were defined to safeguard water resources, as extraction below this level
might irreversibly endanger water quality. The underlying brackish water might mix
with the overlying fresh water, if the latter becomes too shallow.
The main problem of water management in Israel was political.
Decision-makers did not pay too much attention to the alarming data from the Israel
Hydrological Service. The latter body was lauded by the State Comptroller (1990) for
its accurate reporting. Political leaders however were not moved to take action, and
increased public awareness and media attention in 1991 caused a temporary shift in
government policy. Water quotas were cut while water tariffs were increased. These
measures reduced water consumption by the agricultural sector to pre-1958 levels,
while the urban sector also used less water. Total consumption in 1991 was down to
1420 MCM, as compared to 2024 MCM in 1985 (Bruins, 1993, 1999).
However, nothing was learned from the drought and water shortage crisis in
1989-1991 and no structural measures were taken, such as the necessary development
of seawater desalination for the urban sector. So far no drought contingency planning
has been introduced in Israel. Another severe drought began in 1998 and continued
until 2001. The red line in Lake Kinneret was arbitrarily lowered by more than two
meters from –213m to –215.5m to enable continued supply of water to the urban sector.
The condition in the aquifers became worse than in 1989-1991.
Following rapid population growth and declining water resources, the
agricultural share of fresh water consumption in Israel was forced to decline from 81%
in 1958 to 55% in 1998. Citrus orchards, mainly in the coastal plain, were abandoned.
However, the increased consumption of urban water generates additional wastewater,
which must be kept apart in separate systems to prevent groundwater pollution. The
recycled wastewater is sold to the agricultural sector and increasingly replaces its
diminishing share of fresh water. In 1999, 285 millions of m3 of sewage water, about
60% of the country total sewage effluents were recycled for irrigation (Table 6). Since
wastewater is usually only partially treated, salts are not removed. Such irrigation with
partly brackish recycled wastewater causes soil degradation.
Conclusions
The two multi-year drought periods in the last 13 years are either a fluctuation
in a long-term range of cycles, or a climatic change towards a drier average. Both
drought events were more extreme than any other in the last 125 years. Even if the close
recurrence interval is a natural fluctuation, it may be a consequence of a global climate
change.
6
Whether the impact of extreme droughts is irreversible remains a complex
issue, linked to water resources management, especially in Israel which has a
centralized water management system. Lake Kinneret basin, a vulnerable ecosystem
where terrestrial, fluvial and lacustrine themes are involved, epitomizes many of the
problems of water resource management which occur in other parts of the world on a
broader but equally complex scale. The 1998-2001megadrought in the basin and the
human induced stresses show the impact assessment of climate and human interactions.
It is not yet clear whether the overpumping of the main water reservoirs during
the last years has led to irreversible salinization processes in the aquifers and to
negative ecological conditions in Lake Kinneret. The year 2002, one year after the
extreme multi-annual drought, had a rainy season about 10% above the average. It did
not result in any significant rise in the level of Lake Kinneret. Wetlands around the lake
– officially recognized as nature reserves - were practically dry for 6 consecutive years.
The pressure from the nature conservation lobby was unsuccessful in obtaining
allocations of the required amounts of water. The Water Commissioner reduced water
allocations for agriculture by 50%, and the prolonged water crisis brought many
farmers to look for other income sources, thus reducing the total agricultural output.
Water management in Israel provides both an example and a paradox in terms
of efficiency. Far-reaching water laws place all the water resources in the hands of the
State. All water produced and consumed must be metered. The institutional set-up of
water management is comprehensive, while farmers are compelled to use water-saving
irrigation techniques, in which Israel has become a world leader. The construction and
functioning of the National Water Carrier System stands out as an important
engineering achievement.
The “only” problem is that in the development of an efficient water
management at various user-levels the State could not protect itself against the internal
functioning of its own apparatus. While long-term water extraction from the aquifers
exceeded recharge, the State sold too much water over the years, particularly to the
agricultural sector.
There is clearly a need for a different institutional set-up, which places water
affairs, drought contingency planning and crisis management above the various
ministries and interested parties (Bruins, 2002). Otherwise, the impact of drought on
water resources will steadily worsen, which in turn will lead to increased land
degradation, particularly as a result of water and soil salinization.
The failure by successive governments to introduce drought contingency
planning and sustainable water resources management has already damaged agriculture
and nature conservation. If water management is not changed for the better, it could
lead to a major crisis in the nation’s water resources, affecting all sectors of society.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Noga Yoselevich for her help in the drawings and to Rachel
Rabinowitz for providing the Kfar Gil’adi rainfall data . The manuscript was greatly
improved by Professor Jacob Maos and a careful anonymous reviewer.
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7
Ashbel, D. 1950. Bioclimatic Atlas of Israel and the Near East. The Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, 154 pp.
Ben-Zvi, A. 1987. Indices of Hydrological Drought in Israel. Journal of Hydrology, 92,
179-191.
Blitz, N., Schwartz, D. and Nussboim, Sh. 2000. Water in Israel-consumption and
production. Water Authority, Ministry of Infrastructure, Tel Aviv (Hebrew)
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future. In D.A. Wilhite (ed.) Drought Assessment, Management and Planning:
Theory and Case Studies. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston / Dordrecht /
London, Chapter 8, pp. 133-155.
Bruins, H.J. 1999. Drought Management and Water Supply Systems in Israel. In E.
Cabrera and J. García-Serra (eds.) Drought Management Planning in Water Supply
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Bruins, H.J. 2000. Drought hazards in Israel and Jordan: policy recommendations for
disaster mitigation. In D.A. Wilhite (ed.) Drought: A Global Assessment. Volume II,
Routledge, London, Hazards and Disasters Series, Chapter 42, pp. 178-193.
Bruins, H.J. and Berliner, P.R. 1998. Bioclimatic Aridity, Climatic Variability,
Drought and Desertification. In H.J. Bruins and H. Lithwick (eds.) The Arid
Frontier - Interactive Management of Environment and Development. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht / Boston / London, Chapter 5, pp. 97-116.
Fannin, B. 2002. Drought returns to Texas agriculture, resulting in $316 million in
losses. AgNews, Texas A&M University Agriculture Program, June 12, 2002.
http://agnews.tamu.edu/dailynews/stories/DRGHT/Jun1202a.htm.
Grinwald, Z. and Bibas, M. 1989. Water in Israel. Tel Aviv: Ministry of Agriculture,
Water Commission, Water Allocation Department.
Hadas, O., R.Pinkas, N.Malinsky-Rushansky, G.Shalev-Alon, E. Delphine, T.Berner,
A.Sukenik and A.Kaplan. 2002. Physiological variables determined under
laboratory conditions may explain the bloom of Aphanizomenon ovalisporum in
Lake Kinneret. European J. of Phycology 37: 259-267
Inbar, M. 1990: Effects of dams on mountainous rivers. Physical Geography, 11,4:
305-319
Inbar, M. 2001: Natural disasters in a geographical realm. In: J.L. Palacio-Prieto and
M.T. Sanchez Salazar (eds.): Geography for the Third Millenium, UNAM, Mexico,
77-83.
Inbar, M. and Agami, E. 1998. Natural Hazards in Israel, 1948-1998, a Temporal and
Spatial Analysis. Israel Geological Society Annual Meeting, Mitzpe Ramon, p.59
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Levi, W.M. 1963. The Dry Winter of 1962/63: a Synoptic Analysis. Israel Exploration
Journal 13(3): 229-241.
Middleton,N and Thomas, D.1992. World Atlas of Desertification. Arnold, London .
Ministry of Agriculture, 1973. Israel's WaterEconomy. Tel Aviv: Ministry of
Agriculture, Water Commission.
Munich Re Group, 2000. Topics 1999. Annual review of Natural Catastrophes.
Munich, 46 pp.
Ortal, R., 1999. Management and restoration of wetlands in Israel. Reserve Nature
Authority, Jerusalem. (in Hebrew)
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State Comptroller 1990. Report on the Management of Water Resources in Israel. State
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Wilhite, D.A. (ed.) 2000. Drought: A Global Assessment, Volume I & II, Routledge,
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31, 413-420
Captions to Tables
Table 1. Relation between population and average sustainable yield of fresh water in
the Near East (Adapted from World Population and Soffer, 1999)
Table 2: Long term annual rainfall data for Kfar Gil’adi station (1877-2001). *
Synthetic data based on proxy stations from 1877 until 1921. See fig 2 for location.
Elevation- 350m
Table 3. Drought periods of three or more consecutive years, having at least one year
with a drop in precipitation of 33% or more, based on Jerusalem rainfall records for the
period 1846-1993 ( After Amiran, 1994)
9
Table 4: Drought prolonged events in northern Israel (Kfar Gil’adi station) for the
period 1877-2002 and standardized values (zi=xi-μ/SD deviation values. Shaded
figures indicate consecutive rainy and dry years.
Table 5: Jordan river water flow during drought periods (Northern st.) and standard
deviation values for the period 1957-2001.
Table 6: Agricultural water consumption in Israel. 1993-2002 (Adapted from Blitz et
al, 2000)
Captions to Figures
Fig.1: Economic losses for natural disasters in the world:1950-1999( After Munich Re,
2000)
Fig. 2: Lake Kinneret watershed and location map. Mean annual isohyets, monthly
mean rainfall distribution in Kfar Gil’adi and monthly averages of the Jordan river
water flow at the northern Jordan station.
Fig. 3: Annual rainfall at Kfar Gil’adi for the period 1922-2001. Rainfall years are for
the winter season, starting 1922/1923.
Fig. 4: Standardized values (Relative Deviation) or z score ( zi= xi- μ/SD)- Kfar Gil’adi
for the period 1922-2001
Fig. 5: Lake Kinneret, a natural water reservoir provides about 30% of the water
resources of Israel.
Fig. 6: The northern Jordan river, before entering Lake Kinneret, during a winter high
discharge flow.
Fig. 7: Lake Kinneret level for the period 1993-2002. The extreme drought period of
1998-2001 lowered the level to 214.9 m below sea level, the lowest level known by
measurements since the end of the 19th century. The “red line” or minimum level was –
213m but recently was lowered to –215.5m.
Fig. 8: Lake Kinneret beach during low level. Continuous dry years enhance vegetation
development in the lake shores. The historic lake high level is about –209m. Vegetation
line on the right side of the photograph marks the historic level
Fig. 9: A restored coastal lagoon in the Bethsaida plain, at the northern edge of the lake.
TABLE 1
Population
(million)
Turkey
Syria
Lebanon
Israel
67
17
3.7
6.2
Renewable Fresh
Water
(million cubic
meter per year)
105,000
10,500
3,700
1,600
Fresh Water per
Capita
(million cubic
meter per year)
1,567
610
1,000
258
10
Jordan
Egypt
5.3
71
750
60,000
140
845
TABLE 2
1877-1900
1900-1930
1930-1960
1960-1990
1990-2001
Kfar Gil'adi- Annual precipitation (mm)
693
703
759
807
741
Drought years in 30 years periods (std)
1877 - 1900 :
1900 - 1930 :
-0.94
1930 - 1960 :
(1887,1888,1889,1890)
no drought
(1932,1933,1934 )
(1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962)
1960 - 1990 :
(1989, 1990, 1991)
-0.84
1990 - 2003 :
(1999,2000,2001)
-1.30
Standardized
value
Average
-1.05
-0.75
Synthetic
Measured
All data
138.6
683.3
189.1
760.3
192.2
747.8
11
TABLE 3
Drought period of
three years or more
1869/70-1872/73
1898/99-1901/02
1922/23-1935/36
1945/46-1954/55
1957/58-1962/63
1983/84-1985/86
Number of
Consecutive
Years
4
4
14
10
6
3
Average
rainfall
decline (%)
-21
-16
-27
-14
-37
-22
Driest year in
this period
1869/70
1900/01
1932/33
1950/51
1959/60
1985/86
Largest
rainfall
decline (%)
-43
-39
-53
-55
-63
-33
TABLE 4
Year
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
K.Giladi St.Dev
1.71
919
1.85
938
-2.20
379
0.86
801
-0.50
613
0.42
741
0.39
737
1.61
905
-1.09
532
0.16
705
-1.33
500
-0.05
676
-0.84
567
-1.55
470
0.97
816
-0.02
680
1.46
885
0.17
706
-1.08
534
0.54
757
1.15
842
-0.80
573
-0.58
603
0.44
743
-1.44
485
-1.20
518
0.94
813
-1.03
541
0.95
814
-0.01
681
0.02
686
-0.72
584
-0.49
615
0.97
816
0.87
803
0.19
710
0.66
774
0.22
713
0.02
686
-0.26
647
-0.33
637
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
696
829
722
360
801
769
803
473
800
896
665
1148
553
826
613
340
733
1068
668
811
1016
743
870
827
862
1029
733
1014
665
610
749
1072
695
415
924
827
925
528
946
723
685
590
0.10
1.06
0.28
-2.34
0.86
0.05
0.23
-1.52
0.21
0.72
-0.50
2.05
-1.10
0.35
-0.78
-2.22
-0.14
1.63
-0.49
0.27
1.35
-0.09
0.58
0.35
0.54
1.42
-0.14
1.34
-0.50
-0.79
-0.06
1.65
-0.34
-1.83
0.87
0.35
0.87
-1.23
0.98
-0.20
-0.40
-0.90
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
478
632
602
816
861
827
628
948
872
1359
712
944
736
536
963
717
942
906
910
471
1013
1070
598
966
762
793
554
1129
1100
555
621
625
1410
841
525
890
737
770
910
431
608
520
-1.49
-0.68
-0.84
0.29
0.53
0.35
-0.70
0.99
0.59
3.17
-0.25
0.98
-0.13
-1.19
1.07
-0.23
0.96
0.77
0.79
-1.53
1.34
1.64
-0.86
1.09
0.01
0.18
-1.09
1.95
1.80
-1.08
-0.73
-0.72
3.44
0.43
-1.24
0.69
-0.12
0.05
0.79
-1.74
12
-0.80
-1.27
TABLE 5
Year
Q (106 m3)
Std. value
1988/89
267
-0.93
1989/90
183
-1.52
1990/91
232
-1.18
1998/99
201
-1.39
1999/00
215
-1.30
2000/01
169
-1.62
Table 6
Year
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Total
1762.4
1813.0
1981.0
2012.7
2007.8
2165.8
Agriculture Fresh water
1125.0
846.4
1143.6
841.4
1273.8
896.8
1284.3
892.3
1263.8
854.1
1364.9
918.3
1204.6
824.3
1137.4
729.1
1021.9
563.1
1007.0
540.0
Sewage
199.7
219.3
250.0
270.0
255.4
271.0
285.0
260.0
265.0
287.0
Brackish and
Floods
Industrial Domestic
79.3
110.0
527.0
82.9
113.9
555.5
127.0
119.4
588.1
122.0
124.4
604.0
154.3
122.8
621.2
175.6
129.2
671.7
155.3
148.3
193.8
180.0
13