République Démocratique du Congo
ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR ET UNIVERSITAIRE
INSTITUT SUPERIEUR TECHNIQUE ET SOCIAL
I.S.T.S/GOMA
Agrément définitif : N° 070/MINESU/CAB.MIN/MML/CI/2011 du 29 mars 2011
B.P. 169 GOMA
MEDICAL ENGLISH
Promotion : G1 SCIENCES INFIRMIERES
By : Nelson
BAYAVUGE
Assistant
Appartenant à : ……………………………………………………………
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2O14 – 2O15
-1-
MEDICAL ENGLISH
Course out line
Objectives of the course
INTRODUCTION
MEDICAL SUPPLIES AND TOOLS
Here is a list of some of the most common supplies found in doctor’s offices, operating
rooms, and medical kits. Study the vocabulary and try the watching exercise.
Antiseptic
Bandage
Bandage scissors
Blood pressure monitor
Dressing
Elastic tape
Eye chart
Forceps
Gauze
Hypodermic needle
IV bag
Medicine cup
Microscope
Horoscope
Oxygen mask
Privacy screen
Scales
Stethoscope
Liquid used to sterilize (clean) the surface of
the skin.
A cloth covering that is placed over a wound
to prevent bleeding, swelling and infection.
A tool used to cut bandages.
A tool that measures the force of blood flow
through a person’s body.
Protective covering that is placed over a
wound.
A thin roll of stretchy material that is sticky
or one side.
A poster of letter, word, and number
combinations of various sizes used to test
person’s eyesight.
Instrument used during operations and
medical procedures (assist the doctors a
pullong, holding and retrieving.
Thin, netted material used for dressing
wounds.
Sharp pointed metal piece that pricks the skin
(attached to a syringe), used for taking blood
or administering medicine.
The pouch that contains liquids to be pumped
into a patient’s body.
Small plastic measuring cup.
Equipment that makes small things appears
larger than they are.
A device used for looking into patients ears.
Equipment that fits over the nose and mouth
and supplies oxygen.
An object that is used to separate the doctor
and the patient from others in an open room.
A device that measures a person’s weight.
Equipment for listening to a person’s heart
and lungs.
-2Syringe
Table and head-rest paper
Test tube
Thermometer
Vial
A cylinder-shaped piece that attaches to a
needle and can be filled with liquid.
A paper that is placed on a examining table to
prevent the spread of germs.
Glass cylinder that is filled with blood or
other liquids and can be capped and placed in
a storage area.
An instrument used to check a person’s body
temperature.
A small bottle or container used for storing
liquids.
-3-
General Objectives of the course
This course is designed to:
(1) Provide the course members with ample information about HIV / AIDS and
other diseases
(2) Reinforce the course member’s four English Skills
Skill= Capacity to do something well. In English there are four English Skills of
somebody wants to communicate in English.
These skills presuppose “pre-requisites” (preliminary notions)
These skills are:
(1) Listening: capacity to hear and understand what the speaker says.
(2) Speaking: capacity to express one’s feelings and ideas freely (without any
constraints obstacles)
-
Asking questions
-
Answering questions
-
Discussing
-
Making interventions
(3) Reading: capacity to read and understand what you read
We read different materials: scientific, medical, literary, commercial
etc…
(4) Writing: capacity to compose a text
E.g.: writing a letter
Writing an assignment.
I. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
 To provide the students with a general view on the medical English
terminology.
 To enable the students to use English effectively in their profession.
 To help students to translate English medical texts, instruction on medicine
and short interpretation.
 To be able to carry out medical topics for discussion, debate and seminar
 To read medical prescription and different directions for the use of
medicines.
-4-
INTRODUCTION
Aches and pains
You have a pain in a part of your body:
 She felt a sharp pain in her stomach. Or you or a part of your body aches:
He ached all over
My head was aching dully
Headache: she told us she had a headache
Stomachache : he went to bed early because of stomachache.
Backache: He is in excellent healf except for occasional backache
Accidents and injuries
Injury is something that happens when your body is hurt, for example in an accident.
 A local man suffered serious injuries when his car went off the road and ran
into a tree.
A wound is the place on the body where the injury happened and can often be seen.
 The nurse changed the bandage on the wound every day.
Cuts and scratches
 An injury is usually something fairly serious. Other words are used for less
serious things.
 The knife slipped and cut my finger, but it is only a scratch.
I fell on the ice; but only I got a small bruise (= place where the skin turns dark).
Diseases and illnesses
Illness is general word for a period of being in good health:
o He died unexpectedly after a short illness.
o The Doctor asked whether she had a history of any serious illness.
A disease is a particular illness with a name, or an illness that affects a particular part
of the body:
o Measles is the most devastating of all the major childhood diseases.
o A healthy diet and regular exercise can help prevent heart disease.
-5-
A condition is a permanent health problem than affects a particular part of the body:

Asthma can be a very frightening condition, especially in a child.

She suffers from a heart condition.

Thermometer

Prescription

Ointment

Pills

Medicine

sneeze

Cough
Having a disease
People usually talk about having a disease or an illness.
 I have a bad cold
When you start to have a disease or an illness you catch it, get it or come down with
it.
 I must have caught this cold from you.
 I’ve been sneezing and coughing all day
In more formal context and with more serious diseases you can talk about people
suffering from and contracting diseases:
 This medicine is often recommended by Doctor for their patients who suffer
from arthritis.
 People who contract aids.
Being ill
There are different ways of talking about being or becoming ill in British and
American English.
 I've never been so ill in my life
 He’s not in the office to day, he’s sick.
I feel sick means different things: it can mean:
I feel ill
I want to vomit(=bring food up from your stomach)
-6Staying healthy
If you are fit, physical fit, or in shape, you are healthy and strong, especially as a
result of diet and exercise:
 Top athletes have to be very fit
 People who are physically fit have a lower risk of her heart disease.
 After my heart attack, the Doctor advised me to get in shape and stay that
way.
 The doctor said I should get more exercise.
N.B: Disease= illness, disorder, infection, condition, ailment, bug.
MALARIA
Malaria is an infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. It is
widespread in tropical and sub tropical regions, including parts of America, Asia and
Africa. Every year there are approximately 515 million cases of malaria, killing
between one and three million people, most of who are young children in subSaharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, but it is also a cause of
poverty and a major obstacle to economic development.
Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and the enormous
public
health
problem.
The
diseases
is
caused
by
protozoan
parasites
``plasmodium``. Only four types of plasmodium parasite can infect humans, the most
serious forms of the diseases are caused by plasmodium falciparum and plasmodium
vivax, but other related species (plasmodium oval); (plasmodium malarias) can also
affect humans. This group of human pathogenic plasmodium species is usually
referred to have malaria parasites.
Malaria parasites are transmitted by a female anopheles mosquito. The
parasites multiply inside the blood cells causing symptoms. These symptoms
including anemia, shortness of breath,… as well as other general symptoms such as
fever, nausea, and in severe cases, coma and death.
Malaria transmission can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites with
mosquito bites with nets or by mosquito control measures such as spraying
insecticides inside houses and draining standing water there mosquitoes lay their
eggs.
-7There is no vaccine currently available for malaria. Preventive drugs must be
taken continuously to reduce the risk of infection. These drugs treatments are often
too expensive for most people living in endemic areas. Most adults from endemic
areas have a degree of long term infection and also of partial resistance, the
resistance reduces with time and such adults may become susceptible to severe
malaria if they have spent a significant amount of time in non-endemic.
They are strongly recommended to take full precautions if they return to an
endemic area. Malaria infections are treated by use of anti-malaria drugs such as
quinine… although drug resistance is increasingly common.
1. HISTORY OF MALARIA
Malaria has infected humans for over 50000 years, and may have been a
human pathogen for the entire history of our species. Indeed, close relatives of
human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees, our closest relatives.
References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded
history, beginning in 2700 BC in China.
Malaria comes from Italian: mala aria ``bad air`` and the disease was formerly
called “ague fever’’.
Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when
a French army Doctor Working in a military hospital in Constantine, Algeria named
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran Observed parasites for the first time within red
blood cells of people suffering from malaria. He therefore proposed that malaria was
caused by this protozoan, the first time protozoa were identified as the 1907 Nobel
Prize for physiology or medicine.
The protozoan plasmodium was called by the Italian Scientists ettore
Marchifava and Angelo celli. A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating
patients with yellow fever in Havana, first suggested that mosquitoes have
transmitted the disease to humans. However, it was the British sir Ronald Ross
working in the presidency general hospital in Calcutta who finally proved in 1898 that
malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito
species transmit malaria to birds. For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize
in medicine.
The first effective treatment for malaria was the bark of cinchona tree, which
contains quinine. This tree grows in Peru. This natural product was used by the
-8inhabitants of Peru to control malaria, and the Jesuits introduced this practice in
Europe during 1640 where it was quickly accepted.
2. MALARIA: DISEASE OF POVERTY
Malaria causes about 400-900 million cases of fever and approximately one to
three million deaths annually. This represents at least one death every 3O seconds.
The vast majority of cases occur in children under the age of the five years. Pregnant
women are also particularly vulnerable.
Although efforts to reduce transmission and increases treatment, there was a
little change in which areas are at risk of this diseases since 1992. Precise statistics
are unknown because many cases occur in rural areas where people have no access
to hospitals.
Consequently, the majority of cases are undocumented. Malaria is currently
endemic in a wide band around the equator, in areas of America, many parts of Asia
and much of Africa, but it is in sub-Saharan Africa where 85 to 90% of malaria deaths
occur.
3. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
Malaria is not just a disease commonly associated with poverty, but is also a
cause of poverty a major obstacle to economic development. The disease has been
associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread.
4. SYMPTOMS
Symptoms of Malaria include fever, shivering, arthralgia (joint pain), vomiting,
and anemia. Severe malaria is almost exclusively caused by plasmodium falciparum
infection and usually arises during 6-14 days after infection. The consequences of
severe malaria include coma and death if untreated-young children and pregnant
women are particularly vulnerable.
Severe headache, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), hypoglycemia, renal failure
may occur. Renal failure may cause black water fever, where hemoglobin from red
blood cells leaks into the urine. Severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and
cause death within hour or days.
5. CAUSES OF MALARIA
Malaria is caused by protozoan parasites of the plasmodium. In humans,
malaria is caused by the plasmodium falciparum, plasmodium malarias, plasmodium
vivax, and plasmodium oval.
-9The plasmodium falciparum is the most common causes of infection and is
responsible for approximately 80% of all cases of malaria, and is also responsible for
approximately 90% of deaths from malaria. Parasite plasmodium species also infect
birds, reptiles, monkeys, chimpanzees…Although avian malaria can kill chickens and
turkeys, this disease does not cause serious economic losses to poultry farmers.
- 10 -
CHAP I. THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY
I.1. THE HEAD AND THE NECK
EXTERNAL PARTS
A. Hair
F. Ear
K. Lips
B. Forehead
G. Cheek
L. Jaw
C. Eyebrow
H. Chin
D. Eyelid
I. Nose and Nostrils
E. Eye
J. Mouth
INTERNAL PARTS
A. Brain: The mass of soft grey matter in the head, center of the nervous
system
B. Teeth
C. Tongue
D. Epiglottis
E. Trachea
F. Oesophagus
I.2. THE TRUNK
EXTERNAL PARTS
A. Chest
D. Navel
B. Breast
E. Back
C. Abdomen
F. Penis
G. Testicule
INTERNAL PARTS
A. Heart
F. Kidney
K. Ovary
B. Lungs
G. Bladder
L. Clitoris
C. Stomach
H. Pancreas
M. Vagina
D. Appendix
I. Rectum
N. Anus
E. Liver
J. Matrix
O. Prostate
- 11 -
I.3. LIMBS
UPPER LIMBS
Arms: A. Forearm
B. Shoulder – elbow
C. Hand
D. Fingernails
LOWER LIMBS
Legs: A. Knee
B. Foot (ankle – heel – toes - toenails)
C. Buttocks
- 12 -
CHAPTER II. HIV / AIDS
II.1. Definition of AIDS
AIDS is the acronym, for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. We say that
this disease is acquired because it is not a disease that is inherited.
It is caused by a virus (the Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV) which enters the
body from outside.Immunity refers to the body’s natural inherent ability to defend
itself against infection and disease.
Deficiency refers to the fact that the body’s immune system has been weakened
so that it can no longer it self against passing infections.
A. Syndrome is a medical term which refers to a set or collection of specific
signs and symptoms that occur together and that are characteristic of a
particular pathological condition.
Although we use the term “disease” when we talk about AIDS, strictly
speaking is not a specific illness. It is really a collection of many different conditions
that manifest in the body (or specific parts of the body) because the HI virus has so
weakened the invades the body. It is therefore more accurate to define AIDS as a
syndrome of which has the ability to kill the infected person in the final stages of
diseases.
B. HIV / AIDS
 ACTIVITES TO CREATE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
Many people are aware of HIVIAIDS and have some knowledge about
transmission. However; there is also a lot of misinformation and confusion, which
increases stigma and decreases the support given to people living with HIVIAIDS.
For example, while many people know HIV is transmitted through sexual intercourse,
they many also think the virus is present in the condoms.
 SPEPS TOWARD BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
It is increasingly recognized that behavioral change, in addition to awareness
creation, is critical for containing the HIV epidemic. Even when people have a good
understanding their behaviors.
Bringing about behavioral change is much more difficult than raising awareness,
as there are so many contributing factors that lead people to behave in a certain way,
- 13 or which them from changing their behavior. These factors many include culture, the
role and position of women in society; ideas of masculinity, migration and working
away from home for prolonged periods of time, traditional practices such as female
circumcision, poverty,…
One way to promote behavioral change is to teach life skills such as
assertiveness, negotiation, leadership, communication, increase understanding about
the underlying contributing factors of HIV such as gender inequality, and involve
people who are role models and peer educators.
Behavioral change is also related to how people treat those with HIVIAIDS. In
many countries, a powerful stigma (shame or dishonor) exists that prevents people
from being tested or from telling anyone if they know them HIV positive. People fear
that if they tell someone they are HIV positive, they will lose friendships and
relationship. However, there are some activities we can do with our students to
create behavior change and reduce stigma.
 AIDS DETERMINANTS
Behaviors are influenced deeply by environmental conditions and social norms.
Without adequate income, people engage in behaviors that put them at risk for
disease. Without adequate food, diseases progress more rapidly. Without education
and social support, people become increasingly isolated and vulnerable to disease
and discrimination.
There are a number of underlying determinants or hidden factors that affect the
efforts to bring about behaviors change and reduce the spread of HIV, such as
poverty, gender inequality, harmful traditional practices, war and displacement.
 POVERTY
Poverty underlies much sexual behavior. Poverty puts pressure on women
who are supporting their families. Often, they will engage in sex for money or gifts.
Due to unemployment, people move to other parts of the country in search for
jobs. Often they leave their spouses for prolonged periods of time, which makes them
vulnerable to engaging in censual sexual practices, and this also puts their spouse at
risk when they do return to their home town.
Illiteracy makes people more vulnerable to infection, as people lack access to
protect themselves. (In 2000, 51% of women were illiterate in the DRC, and 13% of
men were illiterate).
- 14 -
 GENDER
Gender expectations, or norms, affect women’s and men’s knowledge, altitudes
and sexual behavior, and affect their ability to change their behavior. Significant
behavior change will not be achieved until attitudes about gender roles, as they relate
to sexuality, change first. Behavior change activities need to focus on changing
gender roles as changing behavior, and be targeted at men as well as women.
 Gender factors that put men at risk:
1) High rates of partner change
2) Multiple partners for men
3) High use of alcohol drugs
4) Higher levels of migration for employment
5) Peer pressure in adolescence
 Gender factors that put women at risk:
I.
Less access to education and information, so unaware of HIV transmission
and SID symptoms.
II.
Economic vulnerability-less access to money and own income.
III.
Women are socialized to defer to male authority and are often subordinate to
men, therefore little or no control over sexual relationship and practices.
IV.
Female circumcision, genital mutilation
V.
Domestic violence and rape.
VI.
Early marriage, often without consent.
VII.
Female value placed on virginity.
VIII.
Female status linked to fertility-women under pressure not to use
contraception.
- 15 IX.
Biological differences: it is easier for a woman to contract HIV through sexual
intercourse than it is for a man.
 HARFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES
Female genital mutilation (genital cutting)
Worldwide, an estimated 130 million girls and women have undergone genital
mutilation. Each year, 2 million more women are added to this number. In the late
1990s, this was practiced among some groups in the DRC. This practice puts women
at risk of infection during the procedure itself due to unclean and shared instruments,
but also throughout her life as the sexual organs are more likely to be exposed and
bleed.
 Abduction, rape, early marriage
In some countries young girls are abducted and then raped so that the man can then
claim the girl as his wife, as a girl as his wife, as a girls’ virginity is highly valued in
many communities.
 Scars and tattoos
Using the knife on several people can result in the exchange of blood, transmitting
the virus.
 Polygamy and inheritance of a brother’s wife
In some countries where polygamy is common, a man infected with HIV will then
infect many women, even within marriage. In some countries, another practice is if a
man may have died of AIDS, unknowingly, and the widow may herself be infected.
Then, she in turn infects the brother who marries her.
 WAR AND DISPLACEMENT
Huge displaced populations, permanently mobile populations, large number of
military personnel, conflict situation, or a weak law enforcement can all undermine
efforts to promote HIVIAIDS awareness and behaviors change (in 2001, there were 2
million displaced people in DRC). Soldiers or other military personnel are more at risk
as they are likely to spend prolonged periods of time away; in addition there are often
a large number of men and small number of prostitutes at camps. The men move
away, but the prostitute remains and spreads the virus with the next group of soldiers
bas based at the camp. In many conflict situations, in many conflict situations, rape is
- 16 in often used as an instrument of war. (In DRC, widespread rape of women by
soldiers occurred as part of the armed from 1980-until to day)
 GLOBAL SEX TRADE / SEX TRAFFICKING
Women are often lured into sex trade under false pretences-hired waitresses, maids,
or nanny’s, and then forced into prostitution. Girls are often sold in prostitution by
poor families and increasingly, girls and women are simply kidnapped, often from
poverty-stricken regions, to be traded globally as sex slaves and prostitutes. The
HIVI/AIDS epidemic is fueling demand for younger girls, as customers try to find
“safe” commercial sex partners. (From the late 1990s-until today, the DRC, along
with Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia served as common originating
countries of sex trafficking)
 HOW HIV/AIDS IMPACTS EDUCATION
In some countries, the most immediate impact of HIV/AIDS appears in the schools:
children infected at birth have not lived to enroll in school. Some children enrolled
have been forced to drop out in order to earn money for their family or care for sick
members of the family. Teachers have fallen ill and died. The process of
teaching/learning has become more complicated and the quality of education for
many has deteriorated.
HIV/AIDS AFFECTS:
a. The demand for education:
1) Fewer children enrolling
2) Fewer children are able to complete their schooling
3) Fewer children able to afford education.
b. The supply of education:
(1) Loss of trained teachers and other personnel
(2) Closure of school or classes.
c. The availability of resources of education:

Reduced availability for private resource, family income
- 17 
Salaries paid for sick but inactive teachers.
d. The process of education:

Erratic school attendance of students & teachers.

Increased risk of girls being sexually harassed as they are considered to
be free of infection
e. The content and role of education:

Need to incorporate HIV/AIDS education and life skills into the curriculum

Development of counseling and support skills.
f. The organization of schools:

There is need to provide schools closer to students’ homes

Provide for orphans and children from infected families.
DID YOU KNOW
 An HIV person can be re-infected with the virus even though he/she is
already HIV positive. This can be shorten the time period to develop
AIDS as their viral load (the amount of virus in the blood) is increased.
 If a pregnant woman is infected by HIV during pregnancy it will increase
the chances of her child being HIV positive, because her viral load will be
higher during this time. Similarly, if a woman contracts HIV while she is
breast feeding, there will be an increased probability of her child
becoming infected.
 The window period is the time after infection when the body has not yet
started to produce antibodies so antibody tests will be negative. This is
one of the most infectious times for transmitting HIV to others.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

What is the difference between HIV&AIDS?
- 18 HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. The virus attacks a person’s
immune system overtime. It infects and then destroys key cells (called CD4
cells) which coordinate the immune system’s fight against infection.
AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. When the immune
system becomes so damaged that the person becomes sick with certain
opportunistic infections, then a diagnosis of AIDS is made. In some countries
a diagnosis of AIDS is made by monitoring a patient’s CD4 count. Once this
count drops below a certain value the patient is said to have AIDS.
A person who is infected with HIV can look and fell healthy for a long time
before sings of AIDS appear. But HIV weakens the body’s defense (immune)
system until it can no longer fight off infections such as pneumonia, diarrhea,
and other illnesses. They can also develop certain kinds of cancers.

How long does it take for a person with HIV to develop AIDS?
The time period between HIV infection and developing AIDS is highly
variable. Most individuals with HIV infection begin to develop mild symptoms
between five and ten years after being infected, particularly if the person is
not receiving medical treatment. However, first year.

How do you test for HIV?
There are different types; rapid test, ELISA, and capillary. Different testing
centers will have different types.

Do people die AIDS?
People often die from infections such as pneumonia, or tumors. This makes
it even more difficult to asses the spread of HIV/AIDS as many deaths are
attributed to other things. As the immune system is weakened normal
infections are more severe. People who have developed AIDS will get
opportunic infections, which are infections that a healthy person would not
- 19 
How long the HIV virus live in contaminated materials?
Once out of the body dry, HIV will die in a few minutes. In fact, if the material
exposed to sunlight and/or washed with ordinary soap and water, the virus is
easily destroyed. HIV will continue to live in wet blood, for example, in blood
transfusions; precautions should be taken when having gloves, plastic bags,
needles,…
HIV cannot survive in stomach acid so it will not be present in vomit, urine or
feces (unless there is blood)

Is there a connection between HIV and other sexually transmitted
diseases?
Yes, if you have other STDS it can increase the risk of being infected if you
have unprotected sex, be cause many STDS, if untreated, can result in open
sore or lesions in the genital areas, making HIV infection more likely.

Does using a condom reduce pleasure?
Condoms are very thin and are designed to be sensitive. Some people feel
that there is a small difference in sensation but this is worth the satisfaction
of minimizing the chance of receiving or passing on HIV.

What is the reliability of condoms?
Condoms do not guarantee complete protection from infection. But, it is
proven that they significantly reduce the risk of infection. When stored
properly and used correctly and consistently, it is estimated that there is
around a 98% protection rate

Should HIV positive couples use condoms?
Yes, the viral load of a person who is HIV positive can increase if they are
re-exposed to the virus. This will reduce the time period between HIV
infection and developing AIDS. In addition, if a person with HIV contracts an
STD it can increase progression to AIDS, and some ITDS will be more
severe in people with HIV infection, for example syphilis.
- 20 
Is it possible to get HIV from mosquitoes?
No, mosquito bites cannot transmit HIV. The virus cannot survive in insects.
A mosquito sucks blood into its stomach, where the HIV is killed inactivated.
A mosquito injects saliva not stomach content into a person in bites. There is
no HIV in the saliva of a mosquito.

Is it possible to get HIV by performing oral sex? What is oral sex?
Oral sex is using the mouth on the man or woman’s sexual organs. There is
a small risk, which is increased if there are cuts and lesions in the mouth or
on the male; female genitals; or if semen is swallowed. Medical advice is
that condoms should be used for oral sex.

Is it possible to get HIV from kissing?
No, one would have to exchange huge amounts of saliva to become
infected. If two people have sex without a condom once do they need to use
a condom if they have sex again?
If you have sex once with an HIV positive person you may not contract HIV.
There even if you have sex once with someone without a condom you should still use
one for any future times you have sex. Besides, even If both of you are infected you
can be re-infected and make you condition worse.
Can you tell if a person has HIV just by looking at them? There is no way of
knowing whether someone is infected just by looking at them. A person with HIV can
look and feel healthy for 10 years or more. They may not know that they are infected
but they can pass the virus onto others.
Is there a cure for HIV/AIDS?
No, there is currently no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS, however, there are antiretroviral drugs that can slow down the attack of the virus on the immune system and
can reduce the risk of pregnant women passing the virus onto her unborn child.
Is there a”morning after” pill that prevents HIV infection?
No. you may have heard about a morning after pill for HIV. In facts this is postexposure prophylaxis (PEP). It is not a single pill and does not prevent HIV/AIDS.
PEP is a 4- week treatment that may reduce the risk of acquiring HIV for people who
may have been exposed to the Virus. It does not eliminate the risk. It can be
- 21 purchased, but it is extremely expensive and, because of the toxicity, it can have
severe side effects.
Are men or women more likely to be infected?
There are biological and social reasons why women are more at risk that men:
biological; women (especially when circumcised) are more prone to bleeding during
sex and the surface area if the vaginal mucous membrane is greater.
Social, women after don’t have the power to decide whether or not to have
sexual relations with a partner, and many do not have a say over whether a condom
is used or not. In addition, many women resort to commercial sex work as a means of
survival.
What is the “window period”?
The window period is the time when a person with HIV would have a negative
result if they look at HIV test. It takes up to 3 months for antibodies to be produce
after an infection of HIV, and the test is looking for the antibodies.
If somebody has had unprotect sex, or practices risk behavior within this window
period they will need a retest after 3-6 months to be sure of a correct result.
What have been successful campaigns to tackle the problem of HIV/AIDS?
-
Support and openness from influential people in the country;
-
Trough large-scale public information campaigns stressing the ABC message:
of Abstinence, Being faithful to one partner, and using condoms.
-
Trough a “no means no” campaign empowering women to say no to sex and
addressing issues such as a rape.
-
Widespread access to anti-retroviral drugs
-
School education programs
-
Sex education
-
Testing
Campaigns are important for education, but this is not enough. Countries that
have been more successful in tacking HIV have reduced the stigma associated with
the disease, and brought about real behavioral change.
- 22 What are common myths about HIV/AIDS?
 Having sex with a virgin is completely safe and might even cure you if
you are infecte
 The west created to manage over-population
 HIV was created HIV/AIDS to kill poor Africans
 If a woman asks to use a condom, it means she’s unfaithful
 HIV is in the condoms
 If chickens eat condoms, their eggs will be infected with HIV
 Male circumcision prevents HIV/AIDS
 It’s only an African problem?
 HIV can be transmitted trough shaking hands, using the same eating
utensils or bed sheets
 You can’t get HIV after a certain time at night
 If you only have sex once, you can’t get HIV
 Fat prostitutes are “safe”
 You can tell that someone has HIV, especially men because their hair
becomes smoother and their skin color changes
 Foreigners are “free” of HIV
 Rural girls/women are “safe”
 Using two condoms is safer that one
 Washing the penis after sex will prevent HIV
 Yes HIV is a problem, but not in our school
INFORMATION
What is a slogan?
A slogan is a short message used to motivate action. It is often in the imperative.
Write following AIDS prevention slogans on the board:
 Sex is fun, but stay with one
 No ball, no game, no condom no sex
 Smart girls use condoms
 Men make a difference
 Stop denial, face AIDS
- 23 -
Chapter III. BALANCED DIET: FOOD
III.1. Food groups
WHAT DO YOU EAT?
a)Look at these food groups
Bread and cereals. Ex: bread, spaghetti,
rice
Fruit
and
vegetables,
ex:
bananas
carrots, cabbage, oil
Meat, eggs, fish, beans and nuts. Ex:
lamb, eggs, fresh fish, beans groundnuts
Milk and milk products ex: milk, ice
cream, cheese, chocolate
CARBOHYDRIDE
FATS AND OILS
PROTEINS
Proteins are for body-building.
Carbohydrates
"staple"
foods
potatoes,
rice
come
such
and
from We
They cam from foods such as
also
need
smail
as amounts of fat and oil for
cereals. energy. We can get fats
Staples food provide the foul from milk and fatty meat,
that our bodies need in other to and oil from vegetable oil.
meat, fish, milk, eggs and
nuts. Without proteins, we
could ot repair or make new
cells in our bodies.
produce energy.
VITAMINES
MINERALS
WATER
- 24 -
Vitamins help to protect our
Most people need between 2
body against disease. To stay Minerals are necessary for litres of water each day.we
healthy we need to eat fruit strong bornes and teeth. get some of our water from
and vegetables raw. Milk is They also help to protect us drinking, and some from the
another good source of against disease.
Milk foods we eat for example, a
vitamins.
cheese, fish and liver are potato is 75% water, and a
good sources of essential cucumber is 95%
minerals.
III.2. Vitamins and minerals
III.2.1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Have you heard of these diseases? What are the symptoms? If you know, tell
the class.
Anaemia
Scurvy
Beriberi
Rickets
Night blindness
III.2.2. COMPREHENSION
a) Over a hundred years ago, a Dutch doctor found a cure for beriberi. What
was that cure, and what food does it come?
Late last century, a Dutch doctor named Eijkam discovered the cure for
beriberi. He was working with beriberi cases in a hospital in Indonesia. Many of 1
these patients were too sick to cat the white rice that was prepared for 2 then in the
hospital kitchen.
Rather than waste the rice.
Dr Eijkman fed 3 it to laboratory
chickens, instead of their normal diet of cheap brown rice.
chickens became unwell, and may die.
In a short time, the
- 25 -
Dr Eijkman wondered if the colour of the rice had anything to do with4 their
illness. So he began to feed 5 then on brown rice again. Very soon, the chickens
recovered, Dr Eijkman then tried the same thing of his beriberi patients 6. Those who
ate the brown rice, that is, rice with the husks still on it, recovered.
The husks of
brown rice contained vitamin BI (thiamine). Dr Eijkman won a Nobel Prize for this
discovery.
- 26 -
Reading
Study the VITAMINS AND MINERALS chart carefully.
What vitamin or
mineral can cure or prevent the diseases listed in exercise?
Source
Need for.
Lack
of
this
substance cause.
VITAMIN A
B
C
Carrots
Good eyesight at Night
Eggs
night
Yellow fruits
clear skin
Green vegetables
healthy hair
Bread
Healthy blood
Anaemia
Meat
Good digestion
Beriberi
Eggs
Clear skin
Rough skin
Rice
Healthy nerves
Oranges
Healthy blood
Tomatoes
Clear skin
Red
and
blindness
dye skin and hair
Scurvy
green Fighting infections
peppers
Green vegetables
D
Eggs
Strong bones
Rickets
Fertility
Anaemia
Healthy growth
bobbies
Butter
Fish
Sunlight
E
Most foods
MINERAL
Cheese
Strong bones
Rickets
CALCIUM
Milk
Strong teeth
Weak bones
Fish
Healthy blood
Weak teeth
Healthy blood
Anaemia
cabbage
IRON
Eggs
Liver
Green vegetables
in
- 27 -
Chapter IV: DISEASES AND THEIR SIGNS
Needs: good food containing lots of proteins and vitamins
IV.1 DISEASE SIGNS
Each disease has its sign. Some of the signs are the following:
AGRAPHIA: Inability to write...
ALOPECIA: loss of hair; baldness:
The cause of simple baldness is not yet fully understood, although it is
known that the tendency to become bald is limited almost entirely to males, runs in
certain families and is more common in certain racial groups than in others.
Amenorrhea: Cessation of menstrual periods.
The most common cause is usually disturbance of the endocrine glands
concerned with the menstrual process. General ill heath changes in climate or living
conditions, emotions, emotional shock or, frequently, either the hope of fear of
becoming pregnant can sometimes stop the menstrual flow.
Anesthesia : loss of pain sensation.
Anorexia : lack or loss appetite for food.
Anosmia : loss of the smell.
Asthenia: loss of strength.
Asthenotopia : problem of vision, with pain in the eyes, back of the head and the
neck.
Ataxophemia : lack of coordination of speech muscles.
Bulimia: permanent state of hunger.
Cachexia : state of malnutrition, loss of weight.
Coma : loss of conciousness.
Depigmentation : loss of skin colour
Dermatitis : inflammation of the skin.
Diplopia : double vision.
Dysmenorrhoea : painful menstruation.
Dysphonia : difficulty in speaking.
Dysphea : inability to express thoughts in intelligent language.
Epistaxis : nosebleed.
Faint : loss of consciousness.
- 28 Frigidity : complete in inability of the female to be aroused sexually or to
achieve organism.
Galactostasis : cessation of milk secretion.
Dysphareunia : painful coitus(sexual relation).
Gignation : excessive growth, abnormal overgrowth of the body or a part.
Gastralgia : pain in the stomach.
Gynecosmastia : overdevelopment of mammary glands in the male.
Hematemesis : the fact of vomiting blood.
Hematocyturia : the discharge blood in the urine.
Hematisis : caughing blood.
Halitosis : bad breath.
Hemiparesis : paralysis affecting one side of the body.
Hyperemnesis : excessive vomiting.
Hyperephidrosis : excessive sweating.
Hyperpyrexia : excessively high fever.
Hypertrichosis : excess of hair.
Hypervitaminosis : excess of vitamins.
Insomnia : sleeplessness.
Hypovitaminosis : loss of vitamins.
Leucorrhea : excess of vaginal secretion.
Menorrhagia : excessive blood loss during menstruation.
Polydipsia : excessive thirst.
Pectoralgia : pain in the chest.
Polygalactia : excessive secretion of milk.
Polymenia : abnormally frequent menstruation.
Polypnea : rapid respiration.
Proctodynia : pain in the rectum.
Proteinemia : excess of protein in the blood.
Pygalgia : pain in the buttocks.
Priapism : painful and persistent erection of penis.
- 29 -
IV.2. SOME DISEASES
What’s a disease? A disease is a particular illness with a name , or an illness
that affects a particular part of the body. There are all sorts of diseases.
We have for example:
Communicable disease: a disease which may be carried from one person to
another directly or indirectly.
Constitutional disease: one in which the whole body or an entire system of organ is
affected.
Deficiency disease: a condition due to lack of some nutrients or other
Substance essential to well-being of the body.
Epissotic disease: a disease that affects a large number of animals in some particular
region within a short period of time.
Occupational disease: a disease arising from causes connected with the
patient’s occupation.
Veneral disease: one acquired in sexual contact or coitus, including syphilis,
gonorrhoea…
SOME COMMON DISEASE
Abscess: collection of thick yellowish-white liquid (called pus) formed in a cavity of
the body.
Anaemia: a reduced quantity of haemoglobin in the blood, causing excessive
tiredness, breathlessness and poor resistance to infection.
Angina: heart disease marked by sharp pain in the chest.
Anorexia: loss of appetite for food.
Backache: pain in the back.
Tooth decay: it attacks the teeth. It seems to be a disease of civilization,
possibly associated with refined food. A lack of dental cleanliness is also closely
associated with tooth decay. There is no cure of tooth decay. Prevention is the only
real answer to the problem. The teeth should be brushed at least once a day, and
preferably after every meal.
Chicken pox: a communicable disease of childhood caused by a virus,
accompanied by red sports on the skin, called also varicella. Chicken pox may begin
with a slight fever, headache, and backache and loss appetite.
Cough: a sudden noisy expulsion of air from the lungs.
- 30 Fever: condition of the human body with temperature higher than usual,
especially as a sign of illness.
Goitre: enlargement of the thyroid gland, it causes a swelling in the front part of the
neck.
Malaria : kinds of fever conveyed by mosquitoes which introduce the germs
into the blood. Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite, the plasmodium, which is
carried by the anopheles mosquito. When the mosquito bites an infected person, it
sucks infected parasites, which reside in the blood.
IV.3. INJECTION OF ANY MEDICINE
The common belief that injections are usually better than medicine
taken by mouth is not true. Many times medicines taken by the mouth as well as or
better than injections. Also, most medicine is more dangerous injected than when
taken by mouth.
The only times medicines should be injected are:
1. When the recommended medicine does not come in a form that can be taken by
mouth
2. When the person vomits often, cannot swallow medicine
3. In certain unusual emergencies and special cases.
FOR THESE SICKNESSES
INJECT THESE MEDICINES
Severe pneumonia
Penicillin in high doses
Tetanus
Penicillin and tetanus antitoxin
Appendicitis
Ampicillin in strong doses
Poisonous snakebite
Snake antivenum
Meningitis when you do not suspect Ampicillin in very high doses
tuberculosis
Vomiting
Promethazine
IV.4. WHEN SHOULD MEDICINE NOT BE TAKEN?
There are situations when, without a doubt, it is the best not to use certain
medicines
1. Pregnant women or women who are breast feeding should avoid all medicines that
are not absolutely necessary.
- 31 2. With newborn children, be very careful when using them type of medicines.
Whenever possible look for medical help before giving them a type of medicine. Be
sure not to give much.
3. Persons who have ulcers should avoid medicines that contain aspirin…
IV.5. IMPORTANCE OF LIMITED USE OF ANTIBIOTICS
The use of medicines should be limited. But this is especially true of antibiotics
for the following reasons:
1. Poisoning and reactions. Antibiotics not only bacteria, they can also harm
the body, either by poisoning or by causing allergic reactions. Many people
die each year because they take antibiotics they do not need.
2. Resistance to treatment.
The most important reason to use antibiotics should be limited because when
antibiotics are used too much, they become less effective. When attacked many
times by the same antibiotic, bacteria become stronger and are no longer killed by it.
They become resistant to the antibiotic. For this reason, certain dangerous diseases
like typhoid are becoming more and more difficult to treat than they were a few years
ago. Do not use antibiotics for infections the body can fight successfully by itself.
Save them when they are needed.
IV.6. DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MEDICINES
Instructions for the use of medicines provide the following information:
IV.6.1. COMPOSITION OR DESCRIPTION
Indicates the different products or substance that the medicine contains.
IV.6.2. PROPERTIES OR ACTION
Indicates how the medicine acts on the organism and on the different germs
(worms, viruses, bacteria, bacilli, etc.)
IV.6.3. INDICATIONS
Indicates the illnesses treated by the medicine.
IV.6.4. CONTRAINDICATIONS
Indicates the cases or the illnesses for which the medicine is not advised.
IV.6.5. INTERACTION
- 32 Indicates the association that are advised and the associations to avoid.
IV.6.6. SIDE EFFECTS OR ADVERSE REACTIONS
Indicates some negative effects that may accompany the administration of the
medicine.
IV.6.7. DOSAGE, DIRECTIONS FOR USE OR ADMINISTRATION
Indicates the quantity of medicine to take, what time or the moment when to
take the medicine, how to take it (orally, I, m, I.V) and how many times to take it.
IV.6.8. WARNINGS (ATTENTIONS)
See contraindications
IV.6.9. PRECAUTIONS
Indicates things you have attention to, which you can do and which you must
avoid to do when you take the medicine. (e.g. driving a car, a bicycle, working with a
machine, etc,…
IV.6.10. OVERDOSAGE
Indicates what happens and what you can do if the dose is exceeded.
IV.6.11. HOW SUPPLIED
Indicates the different forms the medicine, the different forms in which it is
presented (in tablets, in capsules, in powder, in syrup, in liquid…)
IV.6.12. STORAGE
Indicates how to keep the medicine (e.g. in a dark place, temperature…)
- 33 -
CHAPTER V: STOMACHACHE
People tend to use the term « stomachache » for various types of stomach or
other abdominal discomfort hence, to find all possible causes of symptom such as a
symptom, it’s necessary to consider other causes of symptom such as stomach
cramps, abdominal pain, abdominal bloating, and other abdominal symptom,…,more.
 CAUSES OF STOMACHACHE
The following medical conditions are some of the possible causes of
stomachache. There are likely to be other possible causes, so ask your doctor about
your symptoms.
-
Upset stomach
-
Indigestion
-
Stomach ulcer
-
Irritable bowel symptom
-
Food poisoning
-
Gas
-
Abdominal disorders( sec abdominal symptom )
-
Ulcerative colitis
-
Crohn’s disease
-
Gallbladder disease
-
Appendicitis*
 HOME DIAGNOSTIC TESTING AND STOMACHACHE
Home medical test possibly related to stomache:
-
Food allergies et intolerances : home testing
-
Home food allergy tests
-
Home food intolerance testing
-
Home water testing
-
More home tests,
- 34 -
 CAUSES OF GENERAL SYMPTOM TYPES
 Abdominal pain
 Stomach cramps
 Abdominal symptoms
 Stomach problems
 Pain
 Digestive symptoms
 Sensory symptoms
 Neurological symptoms
 Upper abdominal symptoms
 Stomach symptoms
 Sensation
When a medical problem come on quicklyor occurs periodically over a, longer
period, it is often best to move quickly and make a diagnis while symptoms are still
present. The more serious the problem, the greater the urgency.
Nevertheless,
urgency should never replace careful and complete diagnostic testing, as is
illustrated by a recent experience.
I was asked to see a patient, a young man in his late twenties, who for several
years had been having episodes of abdominal pain. There was nothing very
distinctive about the pain except that it would last from hours to one or two days and
then disappear. During the episodes, he would not eat; he also noted some nausea.
He had visited an emergency room once, but only limited testing had been done, and
no diagnosis was made. At a later time, he had been seen by a gastroenterologist
who had permed an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. No abnormalities were found
by endoscopy.
The patient was heathy except for the bouts of abdominal pain. Despite
discussing his medical history in detail and examining him, I could find no clues to the
cause of his problem…
Read more about this case of severe abdominal pain and the diagnosis.
What is abdominal pain?
- 35 Abdominal pain is a pain that is felt in a abdomen. The abdomen is a
anatomical area that is bounded by the lower margin of the ribs and diaphragm
above, the pelvic bone (public ramus) below, and the flanks on each side. Although
abdominal pain can arise from the tissues of the abdominal wall muscles), the term
abdominal pain generally is used to describe pain originating from organs within the
abdominal cavity. Organs of the abdomen include the stomach, small intestine, colon,
liver, gallbladder, spleen, and pancreas.
Occasionnally, pain may felt in the abdomen even though it is arising from organs
that are close to, but not within, the abdominal cavity. For example, conditions of the
lower lung, the kidneys, and the uterus or ovaries can cause abdominal pain. On the
other hand, it also is possible for pain from organs within the abdomen to be felt
outside of the abdomen. For example, the pain of pancreatic inflammation may be felt
in the back. These latter types of pain are called “referred” pain because the pain
does not originate in the location that it is felt. Rather, the cause of the pain is located
away from where it is felt.
- 36 -
CHAPTER VI: ANEMIA
a) Definition:
Anemia is a condition in which the body does not have enough healthy red
blood cells. Red blood cells provide oxygen to body tissues.
See also:
 Anemia due to B12 deficiency
 Anemia due to folate deficiency
 Anemia due to iron deficiency
 Anemia of chronic disease
b) Causes, Incidence, And Risk Factors
While many parts of the body are essential to making red blood cells; most of
the work is done in the bone marrow. Bone marrow is the soft tissue in the center of
bones that helps form blood cells.
Healthy red cells last between 90 and 120 days. Parts of your body then
remove old blood cells. A hormone called erythroietin made in your kidneys signal
your bone marrow to make more red blood cells.
Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying protein inside red blood cells. It gives red
blood cells their red color. People with anemia do not have enough hemoglobin.
Marrow: the soft substance inside bones where blood cells develop.
c) Symptom
i.
Possible symptoms include:
 Chest pain
 Dizziness or light-headedness (especially when standing up or with
exertion)
 Fatigue or lack of energy
 Headaches
 Problems concentrating
 Shortness of breath (especially during exercise)
Some types of anemia may have other symptoms, such as:
d) Signs and tests
The doctor will perform a physical examination, and may find:
 Pale skin
 Rapid heart rate
- 37 Some types of anemia may cause other findings on a physical exam.
Blood tests used to diagnose some common types of anemia may include:
Blood levels of vitamin B12, folic acid, and other vitamins and minerals
e) Treatment
Treatment should be directed at the cause of the anemia, and may include:
 Blood transfusions
 Corticosteroids or other medicines that suppress the immune system
 Erythropoietin, a medicine that helps your bone marrow makes more blood
cells
 Supplements of iron, vitamin B12,folic acid, or other vitamins and minerals
f) Expectations (Prognosis)
The outlook depends on the cause.
g) Complications
Severe anemia can cause low oxygen levels in vital organs such as heart, and
can lead to heart attack.
h) Calling your health care provider
Call your health provider if you have any symptoms of anemia, or any unusual
bleeding.
- 38 -
CHAPTER VI: ANOREXIA
 Definition of Anorexia:
An eating disorder characterized by markedly reduced appetite or total
aversion to food. Anorexia is a serious psychological disorder. It is a condition that
goes well beyond out-of-control dieting. The person with anorexia, most often a girl
or young woman, initially begins dieting to lose weight. Over time, the weight loss
becomes a sign of mastery and control. The drive to become thinner is thought to
be secondary to concerns about control and fears relating to one’s body. The
individual continues the endless cycle of restrictive eating, often to a point close to
starvation. This becomes an obsession and is similar to an addiction to a drug.
Anorexia can be life-threatening. Also called anorexia nervosa.
 Anorexia Causes
There are multiple anorexia causes, and the causes of anorexia are not
always understood. There is some debate about the causes of the disorder, but
the truth seems to be that there are different causes for different people.
Understanding the causes of the disorder can go a long way toward anorexia
prevention, if proper steps are taken.
It’s not known specifically what causes some people to develop anorexia. As with
many diseases, it’s likely a combination of biological, psychological and
sociocultural fac.
 Treatments of Anorexia
Anorexia is a deadly disease that needs to be taken seriously. Here are
some treatments available and some reasons why young adults get anorexia.
The self-starvation that is common of anorexia nervosa is caused by a
complex psychiatric disorder that afflicts about 1 in 100 Americans, mostly young
girls or young women. Very few males afflicted with this disease, they ones that
are, are mostly weight-conscious young boys, who are dancers, gymnasts or other
athletes. The cause of anorexia, a medical term for appetite loss, is unknown.
- 39 Researchers believe that a combination of hormonal, social and
psychological reasons may be responsible. The disease unfortunately begins with
puberty, a time of hormonal and psychological changes. Many young girls are
convinced that they are too fat, regardless of how much she weights, and then she
begins obsessive dieting. Some girls adopt a very strict diet and others may plan a
large meal and then refuse to eat. When an anorexic does decide to eat, they may
resort to self-induced vomiting or laxative abuse to avoid gaining weight. Many
young girls, women or boys that have this condition may exercise obsessively,
often for many hours a day.
As anorexia progresses there are many other problems that arise. In most
of the young women that have this disease the menstruation ceases and
nutritional deficiencies develop. Many young people that have anorexia try to hide
how thin they are by wearing oversized clothes. This is a very emotional disorder,
they are happy that they are not fat, but they are embarrassed at how thin they
are.
The physical side effects of anorexia include fatigue, nervousness or
hyperactivity, dry skin, hair loss, and intolerance to the cold. There are many more
serious complications that can and do arise often; these include cardiac
arrhythmias, loss of bone mass and kidney failure. Anorexia is a serious disease
that causes death in about ten percent of the cases reported.
There are treatments that can prevent this dreadful end. You must watch for
the signs, since this disease deals with the emotions, people with anorexia need a
lot of psychological support. Anorexia requires an intensive long term treatment
program.
It is best to seek treatment from a team of physicians that are experienced
with eating disorders. The team should consist of a doctor to treat the starvationinduced medical problems, a psychiatrist and a dietitian. Anorexia does not only
afflict the one individual, but this is a trying time for the whole family that is
involved, it is best to seek counseling for the whole family as well.
- 40 -
CHAPTER VII: TETANUS
1. What is tetanus?
Tetanus is an acute, often-fatal disease of the nervous system that is
caused by nerve toxins produced by the bacterium clostridium tetani. This
bacterium is found throughout the world in the soil and in animal and human
intestines.
2. Where do tetanus bacteria grow in the body?
Contaminated wounds are the sites where tetanus bacteria multiply. Deep
wounds or those with devitalized (dead) tissue are particularly prone to tetanus
infection.
Puncture wounds such as those caused by nails, splinters, or insect bites
are favorite locations of entry for the bacteria. The bacteria can also be introduced
though burns, any break in the skin, and injection-drug sites. Tetanus can also be
a hazard to both the mother and newborn child (by means of the uterus after
delivery and through the umbilical card stump).
The potent toxin that is produced when the tetanus bacteria multiply is the
major cause of harm in this disease.
How does the tetanus the tetanus toxin cause damage to the body?
The tetanus toxin affects the site of interaction between the nerve and the
muscle that it stimulates. This region is called the neuromuscular junction. The
tetanus toxin amplifies the chemical signal from the nerve to the muscle, which
causes the muscles to tighten up in a continuous («titanic» or «tonic»)
contraction or spasm. This results in either localized or generalized muscle
spasms.
Tetanus toxin can affect neonates to cause muscle spasms, inability to
nurse, and seizures. This typically occurs within the first two weeks after birth and
can be associated with poor sanitation methods in caring for the umbilical cord
stump of the neonate. Of note, because of tetanus vaccination programs, only
three cases of neonatal tetanus have been reported since 1990, and in each of
these cases, the mothers were incompletely immunized.
- 41 -
3. What is the incubation period for tetanus?
The incubation period between exposure to the bacteria in a contaminated
wound and development of the initial symptoms of tetanus ranges from two days
to two months, but it’s commonly within 14 days of injury.
4. What is the course of the tetanus disease? What are the symptoms
and signs of tetanus?
During a one-to seven-day period, progressive muscle spasms caused by
the tetanus toxin in the immediate wound area may progress to involve the entire
body in a set of continuous muscle contractions. Restlessness, headache, and
irritability are common.
The tetanus neurotoxin causes the muscles to tighten up into a continuous
(«titanic» or «tonic») contraction or spasm. The jaw is «locked» by muscle
spasms, giving the name «lockjaw» (also called «trismus»). Muscles throughout
the body are affected, including the vital muscles necessary for normal breathing.
When the breathing muscles lose their power, breathing becomes difficult
or impossible and death can occur without life-support measures. Even with
breathing support, infections of the airways within the lungs can lead to death.
5. How is tetanus treated?
General measures to treat the sources of the bacterial infection with
antibiotics and drainage are carried out in the hospital white the patient is
monitored for any signs of compromised breathing muscles. Treatment is
directed toward stopping toxin production, neutralizing its effects, and controlling
muscle spasms. Sedation is often given for muscle spasm, which can lead to lifethreatening breathing difficulty.
In more severe cases, breathing assistance with an artificial respirator
machines may be needed.
The toxin already circulating in the body is neutralized with antitoxin drugs.
The tetanus toxin causes no permanent damage to the nervous system after the
patient recovers.
- 42 After recovery, patients still require active immunization because having
the tetanus disease does not provide natural immunization against a repeat
episode.
6. How is tetanus prevented?
Active immunization («tetanus shots») plays an essential role in preventing
tetanus. Preventative measures to protect the skin from being penetrated by the
tetanus bacteria are also important. For instance, precautions should be taken to
avoid stepping on nails by wearing shoes. If a penetrating wound should occur, it
should be thoroughly cleansed with soap and water and medical attention should
be sought. Finally, passive immunization an be administered in selected cases
(with specialized immunoglobulin).
7. What is the schedule for active immunization (tetanus shots)?
All children should be immunized against by receiving a series of five DTP
vaccinations which generally are started at 2 months of age and completed at
approximately 5 years of age Booster vaccination is recommended at 11 years of
age with T day.
Follow-up booster vaccination is recommended every 10 years there after.
While a 10 year period of protection exists after basic childhood series is
completed, should a potentially contaminated wound occur, an «early» booster
may be given in selected cases and the 10 years «clock» reset.
8. What are the side effects of tetanus immunization?
Side effects of tetanus immunization occur in approximately 25 % of
vaccine recipients. The most frequent side effect are usually quite mild (and
family) and include soreness, swelling and/or redness at the site of the injection.
More significant reactions are extraordinarily rare. The incidence of this particular
reaction increases with decreasing interval between boosters.
9. What is passive immunization (by way of specialized immunoglobulin)?
In individuals who exhibit the early symptoms of tetanus or in those whose
immunization status is unknown or significantly out of date, the tetanus
immunoglobulin (TIG) is given into the muscle surrounding the wound with the
remainder of the dose given into the buttocks.
- 43 -
10.Tetanus At Glance
I.
Tetanus is frequently a fatal infectious disease.
II.
Tetanus is caused by a type of bacteria (Clostridium tetani).
III.
The tetanus bacteria often enter the body through a puncture
wound which can be caused by nails, splinters or insect bites, or
burns, any skin break, and injection-drug sites.
IV.
All children and adults should be immunized against tetanus by
receiving vaccinations.
V.
A tetanus booster is needed every 10 years after primary
immunization or after a puncture or other skin wound which could
provide the tetanus bacteria an opportunity to enter the body.
FERMALE STERILITY
Definition
For a woman to be fertile, the ovaries must release healthy eggs regularly.
In addition, her reproductive tract must allow the eggs and sperm to pass into her
fallopian tubes to become fertilized and implanted in the uterus.
The cause of female infertility can be difficult to diagnose, but many treatments are
available. Treatment isn’t always necessary. Half of all infertile couples will go on to
conceive a child spontaneously within the next 24 months.
Causes
In order for you to become pregnant, each of these factors is essential:
 You need to ovulate. Achieving pregnancy requires that you’re having regular
menstrual cycles during which an egg is released, a process known as
ovulation. The doctor can help evaluate the menstrual cycles and confirm
ovulation.
 Your partner needs sperm. For most couples, this isn’t a problem unless
your partner has a history of illness or surgery. Your doctor car runs some
simple tests to evaluate the health of your partner’s sperm.
 You need to have regular intercourse. You need to have regular sexual
intercourse during your fertile time. The doctor may be able to help you better
understand when you are most fertile during your circle.
For pregnancy to occur, every part of the complex human reproduction
process-from the ovary’s release of a mature egg to the fertilization of the egg
to the fertilized egg’s implantation and growth in the uterus-has to take place
just right. In women, a number of factors can disrupt this process at any stage.
Female infertility is caused by one or more of these factors.
- 44 Ovulation disorders’
25 percent of infertile couples face the problem of ovulation disorders and fall into
infertility; and this is the problems of the ovary. Someone has an ovulation disorder if
she ovulates infrequently or not at all.
Uterine causes
Myomas in the uterus, common in women in their 30s, can impair fertility by blocking
the fallopian tubes or by disrupting implantation. However, many women who have
myomas can become pregnant. Scarring within the uterus also can disrupt
implantation, and some women born with uterine abnormalities can have problems
becoming or remaining pregnant.
Unexplained infertility
In some instances, a cause for infertility is never found. It’s possible that
combinations of minor factors in both partners underlie these unexplained fertility
problems.
The good news is that couples with unexplained have the highest rates of
spontaneous pregnancy of all infertile couples.
Symptoms
The main symptom of infertility is the inability of a couple to get pregnant. An
abnormal menstrual cycle that’s too long (35 days or more) or too short (less than 21
days) can be a sign of female infertility. There may be no other outward signs or
symptoms.
When to see a doctor
If you’re in your early 30s or younger, most doctors recommend trying to get pregnant
for at least a year before having any testing or treatment. If you’re over 40 or have a
history of irregular or painful periods, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), repeated
miscarriages, prior cancer treatment, you have to be tested.
Tests and diagnosis



Ovulation testing. A blood test for progesterone, a hormone produced after
ovulation, can document that you are ovulating. You can also check for this at
home.
Hysterosalpingography. This test evaluates the size and contour of your
uterine cavity and checks whether your fallopian tubes are open.
Hormone testing. Testing for specific hormones.
- 45 Treatments and drugs
It depends on the cause, your age, how long you’ve been infertile and
personal preferences. Although some women need just one or two therapies
to restore fertility, it is possible that several different types of treatment may be
needed before you are able to conceive.
Treatments can either try to restore fertility-by means of medication or surgeryor assistance in reproduction with sophisticated techniques.
Reproductive assistance: In Vitro Fertilization.
This effective technique involves retrieving nature eggs from a woman,
fertilizing them with a man’s sperm in a dish in a laboratory and transferring
the embryos in the uterus three to five days after fertilization. In Vitro
fertilization (IVF) often is recommended when both fallopian tubes are blocked.
DIARRHEA
WHAT IS DIARRHEA ?
WHAT CAUSES DIARRHEA ?
Diarrhea is a condition that involves the frequent passing of loose or watery stools-it
is the opposite of constipation and can have many causes, which may be infections
or non infections.
Diarrhea comes from the Greek word diarrhoia. Dia means “flow” and rrhoia means
“through”
flowing through.
SPELLING: In American English it is spelled “diarrhea”, and in British English it is
diarrhea”.
 Acute diarrhea, meaning diarrhea that is not long term, is a very common
cause of death in developing nations, especially among young children and
babies. It usually appears rapidly and may last from between five or ten days.
 Chronic diarrhea, meaning long-term diarrhea is the second cause of death
among children in developing countries.
People with diarrhea may be caused by inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBS),
an allergy, or an infection.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) approximately 3.5 million
deaths each year are attributed to diarrhea. 80 % of those deaths occur in
children under the age of 5 years, children are more susceptible to the
complications of diarrhea because a smaller amount of fluid loss leads to
dehydration, compared to adults.
TYPES OF DIARRHEA



Secretory diarrhea: this is the most common caused by a cholera toxin
secreted by the bacterium vibrio cholera.
Osmotic diarrhea; Too much water is drown into the bowels. This may be
result of some diseases such as pancreatic disease, celiac disease, …
Inflammatory diarrhea: This is usually caused by bacterial infections or
parasitic infections.
- 46 


Mobility-related diarrhea: Food moves too quickly through the intestines. If the
food moves too quickly there is not enough time to absorb sufficient nutrients
and water.
Dysentery: It is usually caused by an infection, a virus or bacteria. Antibiotics
can disturb the natural balance of bacteria in our intestines, which can lead to
infection, commonly with a bacterium called clostridium difficile.
CHOLERA: It is an acute infectious, intestinal disease. Cholera is caused by
bacteria called vibrio cholera. It is caused by drinking contaminated water or
eating contaminated food. Water or food can get contaminated by human
faces.
DIARRHEA PREVENTION
Diarrhea can be prevented in the following ways:
6. Boiling drinking water
7. Washing hands before serving and eating
8. Washing hands after visiting the toilet
9. Proper disposal of faeces. You should always use a toilet
10. Serving food in clean utensils’
11. Covering food with a clean cloth to keep away flies and cockroaches’
12. Washing raw food such as fruits before eating them.
WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS OF DIARRHEA ?
The most common symptoms include:
 Abdominal pains
 Feeling to go to the toilet each time
 Vomiting
 Nausea
 Fever
 Headache
 Loss of appetite
 Abdominal bloating
 Blood in stool
 Fatigue
 Dizziness.
EMERGENY IN DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is not considered to be so serious problem in initial stages. But this
becomes difficult if left untreated or remains un-medicated.
Here are some of the situations to be remembered and needs immediate attention to
the physician or hospitalization.
 If the suffer is a child
 If the stools contain blood
 If the diarrhea is excessive and no improvement ever after 12-16 hr
 If the diarrhea is associated with fever, which is more than [0] Fahrenheit
 Severe abdominal pain with vomiting
 If eyes and tongue are totally dry
- 47 
If the diarrhea is epidemic
TREATMENT FOR DIARRHEA
In the vast majority of cases the diarrhea will disappear within a week.
Before it does, the following steps may help ease symptoms:
- Drink plenty of fluids: diarrhea often carries a risk of dehydration, especially
if it includes vomiting. It is important to make sure babies and children are
getting plenty of fluids.
- Eat as soon as you feel up to it: Patients with diarrhea start eating food high
in a carbohydrates such as bread, rice, potatoes, … they have to add a bit of
salt to the food to replace salt loss. Avoid foods that are high in fats.
- Medications: This may be decided after medical check.
 Pain killers: after medical check.
FIRST AID AND TREATMENT
A person with diarrhea looses water quickly. The most important step is to replace
water the body is losing. We do this by giving the patient oral rehydration salts (ORS)
to drink.
Oral rehydration solution (ORS) is a salt and sugar solution that is available in health
centers and chemists. It treats dehydration by replacing the liquids and nutrients lost
in diarrhea.
It is easy to make a similar solution at home. This is explained in activity below.
Use the following methods:
Ingredients: one tea spoon of salt
Eight teaspoons of sugar
One liter of clean drinking or boiled water that has been cooled.
PREPARATION METHOD
Put the salt and the sugar into one liter of cooled water. Stir the mixture till the salt
and sugar dissolve. This mixture makes about 5 cups of the rehydration solution. The
patient should not be given oily food.
Babies with diarrhea should be breasted more frequently. Older children and adults
can be given porridge, soup and fruit juices to replace the lost fluids.
N.B.: Oily foods are difficult to digest.
Watch out for signs of dehydration:
A child who looks weak and has dry skin should be given plenty of drinks. The child
should also be taken to the health center or hospital immediately.
- 48 -
EXERCISES
 SOMES REALITIES ABOUT AIDS
Complete the text with the following words: expired, blood, AIDS,
heterosexual, mosquito, gave transmitted, boyfriend, cough, know, looking, anger,
protect, cure, medicines, food, symptoms, treatment, pregnant.
You may have heard myths about AIDS and STDS. Many people believe
that all STDs can be…………., however this is no true……………, which is an STD,
is incurable.
Additionally, some people say AIDS is a white person’s disease, yet this
is false as well. Maybe you’ve also heard it said that you can catch AIDS from a
…………bite; or by sharing …………..with someone who has AIDS. This is not true.
Moreover, AIDS is believed by some people to be caused by witches
and angry spirits. This is another myth. AIDS is not a punishment. It is a disease
caused by virus.
Let’s look at some of the facts. This information will help you protect
yourself against this disease. How is AIDS………….? The disease can be spread in
the following ways. First of all, AIDS is categorised as an STD because in subSaharan Africa over 75% of the reported AIDS cases were transmitted
through…………………………………..Intercourse, that is a man and woman having
sex
with
each
other.
In
addition,
AIDS
can
be
transmitted
through
contaminated…………………..transfusions or using contaminated needles or razors.
Finally, a ……………………… woman can also give AIDS to her unborn child.
What are some symptoms of AIDS? This is not an easy question to
answer because some of the …………………………of AIDS are the same as other
STDs diseases. Persistent high temperatures, diarrhoea for long periods of time, a
…………………………
That will not go away. Open sores that will not heal and weight loss are
symptoms of AIDS. However, these same symptoms could also indicate that you
have some other disease. In addition, in the early stages, people who are infected
with the HIV virus do not show any symptoms.
- 49 You cannot tell just by …………………..at them whether they are
infected. On the contrary, the only way people can really……………………………….if
they are infected is through a blood test.
If you are sexually active, how can you protect yourself against AIDS ?
First, the surest way to avoid AIDS is not to have sex. Second, you can
…………………………………yourself
by
remaining
faithful
to
one
uninfected…………………or girlfriend.
Third, if you are not 100% sure that your partner is not HIV positive, use
a condom. Most cases of HIV infection in women in the group 18 to 34 years result
from sexual intercourse with their regular partners.
In your opinion, how do young people react to the news that they have
an STD ? Many young adults say they feel ashamed. Besides shames, they may also
feel……………………towards
their
boyfriends
or
girlfriends
who……………………………….
Them the disease. Even though people with STDs know they need
medical……………,
Their shame may prevent them from getting the correct help from doctors or nurses.
Therefore, these people may go secretely to traditional healers or may
buy…………….
From street sellers. But the date on these medicines may have
………………..and street sellers cannot be trusted to give the correct medicines in
the correct quantities. Consequently, those suffering from untreated or incorrectly
treated STDs may become very sick, and may end up unable to have children.
In conclusion, if you know the facts about STDs and AIDS you will know
how to protect yourself and stay healthy. You will also be able to help others
understand the realities of STDs and AIDS.
 TEXT TO ANALYSE: THE GLOBAL AIDS EPIDEMIC
One frustrating fact about the AIDS epidemic is that every new case
could have been prevented. If men used condoms, the number of new infections
would plummet. Condoms, however, are far from universally available, and they are
universally unpopular.
- 50 Even when governments promote condom use, and condoms are
available, getting men to use them is difficult. Women who have a higher chance of
being infected than men, seldom have much to say in the matter. Although the
burden to enforce condom usage falls mainly upon women, the solution is
problematic in patriarchal or male dominated societies where women are routinely
denied control over their lives.
One group of women, however, might be better able to promote
condom usage: prostitutes. In some countries in Africa, various programs have been
set up to encourage prostitutes and their clients to use condoms. The idea is that if
condom usage is a general rule with all prostitutes, it will be more accepted than if
just a few try to insist upon it.
Nonetheless, unless such programs can be implemented, the outlook
is pessimistic. In some countries, the population in some age group will stagnate or
fall due to the number of HIV related deaths. The decrease in members of the work
force, both urban and rural, will badly affect the economies of this countries. Since
there is no means of curing AIDS, education and prevention is the best defense. If
people do not change their behaviour, more and more people will die and families will
be devastated.
- 51 -
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
Match the vocabulary words with the definitions:
Vocabulary
Definition
1. Plummet
A. Difficult responsibility
2. Available
B. Future prospect or possibility
3. Burden
C. Obtainable
4. Patriarchal
D. Fall very quickly
5. Routinely
E. Badly affected
6. Set up
F. Habitually, continually
7. Outlook
G. Ruled and controlled by a man
8. Stagnate
H. To reduce or to make less
9. Decrease
I. Stay the same
1O. Devasted
w. J. Organise.
TEXT 3: WOMEN AND STDs
Women with STDs are more vulnerable than men. Because they are
often asymptomatic, that is, they show no symptoms, women may not know if they
have an infection until it becomes a serious problem.
The effects of not treating or incorrectly treating STDs are, again,
disproportionally higher for women than men. Men may suffer mild to severe genital
discomfort and urinary tract problems. STDs leading to sterility and death for men are
rare but possible.
The effects of STDs on women are even more serious: Pelvic
inflammatory disease, cervical cancer, increased change of ecotopic pregnancy,
chronic pain, and reproductive tract infections which can lead to infertility and death.
In Africa, Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is believed to be the major preventable
cause of female sterility. In addition, untreated syphilis in pregnant women is a
common cause of still birth.
Other complications for new born infants include birth defects, low birth
weight, premature birth, and respiratory and eye problems. The effects of STDs can
have an especially devasting effect on African women because her social value often
is determined by the number of children she has.
- 52 QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
1.
According to the passage, why are women with STDs more
vulnerable than men?
2.
According to the passage, what are the dangers of untreated
STDs?
PRACTICAL WORKS
ABOUT AIDS

Read the text below and complete the blanks with one of the following words.
Make sure to change the verb tenses when necessary: To transmit,
abstinence, intercourse, to share, condom, safe sex, to protect, faithful, breast
mil, a cure.
AIDS is sexually transmitted disease (STD) that does not have a……………….
Many people believe that mosquitoes can………...………………………………..
AIDS, or if you………………………………….food with someone that has
AIDS, you will get the disease. These are not true. AIDS is an STD because
75% of AIDS cases are transmitted by………………............when a man and a
woman have sex.
AIDS can also be transmitted by ………………………..….a needle with
someone that already has AIDS.
Finally, a woman can give AIDS to Cher child though her……………….… if
you are sexually active, you can ………………your self from getting AIDS.
First, the best way to avoid AIDS is by………………….… from all forms of sex.
Second, you can protect yourself by remaining…………………………..…to
one uninfected girlfriend or boyfriend.
Third, if you are sexually active, you should always
practice…………….……
and………………………………...…always use
a……………………….…………
- 53 -
REFERENCES
1.
HIV/ AIDS Care and counselling A Multidisciplinary approach.
Second Edition South Africa 2001.
2.
Benjamin F. Miller and Claire Brackman
Keane RN (1972) Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of medicine and Nursing.
W.B Sounders company. West Washington Square Philadelphia.
3.
Médecins sans Frontières (1993): Essentiel Drug Pratical Guides. Hatier
Paris.
4.
Teach English Prevent AIDS.A TEACHER'S MANUAL.june 1995.Peace
Corps. Information collection and exchange M0050.
5.
Seager, joni.2003. The Penguin Atlas of women in the World. New York:
Penguin group.
6.
www.avert.org/subaadults.htm
- 54 -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course out line ..........................................................................................................
Objectives of the course ........................................................................................
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................
Chapter I. THE PARTS OF THE BODY ................................................................
Chapter II. HIV/AIDS ............................................................................................
Chapter III. BALANCED DIETS: FOOD.................................................................
Chapter IV. DISEASES AND THEIR SIGNS .........................................................
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................
General Objectives of the course .................................................................................
I. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE .........................................................
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................
a.
HISTORY OF MALARIA ........................................................................................
b.
MALARIA: DISEASE OF POVERTY .....................................................................
c.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION ...............................................................
d.
SYMPTOMS ..........................................................................................................
e.
CAUSES OF MALARIA .........................................................................................
f.
MOSQUITO LIFE CYCLE .....................................................................................
CHAP I. THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY .......................................
I.1. THE HEAD AND THE NECK ..............................................................................
I.2. THE TRUNK .......................................................................................................
I.3. LIMBS .................................................................................................................
CHAPTER II. HIV / AIDS .............................................................................................
II.1. Definition of AIDS ...............................................................................................
Chapter III. BALANCED DIET: FOOD ..........................................................................
III.1. Food groups ......................................................................................................
WHAT DO YOU EAT? ..................................................................................................
III.2. Vitamins and minerals .......................................................................................
III.2.1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ..........................................................................
Anaemia .......................................................................................................................
Scurvy...........................................................................................................................
Beriberi .........................................................................................................................
- 55 Rickets ..........................................................................................................................
Night blindness .............................................................................................................
III.2.2. COMPREHENSION...........................................................................................
Chapter IV: DISEASES AND THEIR SIGNS ................................................................
IV.1 DISEASE SIGNS ...............................................................................................
IV.2. SOME DISEASES ............................................................................................
IV.3. INJECTION OF ANY MEDICINE ......................................................................
IV.4. WHEN SHOULD MEDICINE NOT BE TAKEN? ...............................................
IV.5. IMPORTANCE OF LIMITED USE OF ANTIBIOTICS .......................................
IV.6. DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MEDICINES ................................................
CHAPTER V: STOMACHACHE ...............................................................................
CHAPTER VI: ANEMIA ............................................................................................
CHAPTER VI: ANOREXIA ............................................................................................
CHAPTER VII: TETANUS ............................................................................................
EXERCISES .................................................................................................................
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................