Interracial Relationships 1
RUNNING HEAD: Interracial Relationships
Interracial Dating Marriages and Families:
A Review of Recent Literature
Chelsea Grant
Utah State University
Family Communications
Dr. Gayle E. Houser
November 25, 2008
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Abstract
The purpose of this literary review is to explore the research
that has been done on interracial relationships and the different
conflicts those involved with these relationships experience. I
primarily focused on the relationships between African Americans and
Non-Hispanic white, as members of these relationships experience the
most controversy from society and family.
This paper demonstrates the
outside and inside influences that affect an interracial couple and
their chances of creating a successful family as well as who approves
of/ and is more likely to participate in interracial relationships.
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Introduction
In the 2005 release of Guess Who, Ashton Kutcher and Bernie Mac
star in a motion picture depicting a white male (Kutcher) attempting
to marry an African American woman.
The movie demonstrates the
prejudices and challenges the couple has when presented with societies
disapproval and the discontentment from the bride-to-be’s family,
particularly the dad.
Kutcher’s character struggles to win the approval of the family
he hopes to soon call his in-laws. And his in-laws struggle to show
their daughter they are happy for her and excited that she has found
such a wonderful guy, despite the fact that he is a white boy.
This film is not based on a true story. However, is realistic
depiction of the struggles that interracial couples must face when
confronting family and society with an open relationship?
A Growing Number of Interracial Relationships and the Younger
Generation
On June 12, 1967, the U.S. Supreme Court eradicated all laws
banning interracial marriages and in 1970 less than one percent of all
marriages were interracial. Since then, interracial marriages have
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grown substantially more common (Bratter, King, 2008).
In 2000, six
percent of all marriages were interracial according to the U.S. Census
Bureau.
The growing number of interracial marriages could be linked to
the rising generation of young adults that show a greater acceptance
of interracial dating and relationships.
According to Golebiowaska
(2007), there is a significant generational gap in opposition to
black-white intermarriage and thus the future shows hope for much less
racial hostility toward these couples, than that of their
grandparents.
The younger generation is much more likely to have friends from a
different race or cultural background, and thus more likely to
interracially date (Richardson, 2008).
Although parents may
disapprove of interracial dating, the younger generation values freethinking and individualism above their parents or grandparents old
ways of thinking. In a survey done at Bob Jones University – a school
deeply rooted in Southern values and traditions- most students believe
that if their parents do not approve of them crossing racial lines in
their relationships, they are being racist (Firmin, Firebaugh, 2008),
a drastic change from their grandparents.
In “The New Face of America,” as cited by McFadden (2001), Passel
and Edmonton predict that by the year 2050 the percentage of the U.S.
population that will have mixed ancestry (any combination white,
Hispanic, Asian, or black) will triple to 21 percent.
Interracial
marriages are predicted to continually increase (McFadden, 2001),
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despite the data supporting the fact that interracial marriages are
more vulnerable to failure (Bratter, King 2008).
Divorce in Interracial Marriages
As cited by Bratter and King (2008), Bramlet and Mosher (2002)
found that 41 percent of interracial couples were divorced by their
tenth year of marriage, contrasted with 31 percent of same-race
marriages which were divorced.
Other studies on the subject have
found similar results, that interracial marriage, particularly among
black/white couples, are more likely to divorce then those of samerace marriages (Bratter, et al.).
Interracial relationships are uniquely related to divorce rates.
They can be inflicted by differences in cultures, language barriers,
world views, values, expected gender roles, and/or conflicting ideas
on properly raising and teaching children (Troy, Lewis-Smith,
Lauenceau, 2006).
If the members of interracial marriages feel a weak sense of
racial identity, they are more likely to feel insecure about their
marriage (Leslie, Letiecq, 2004). Racial identity is the extent that
an individual is aware of, understands and values their cultural
background. When a person feels confident in their culture’s history
and is proud of their race they are more likely to accept those from
outside races. With confidence in their own race and understanding of
their partners race, members of interracial marriages that have a
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strong sense of racial identity are far more likely to succeed in the
marriage (Leslie, ibid).
Another factor that plays a critical role in the higher divorce
rates of intermarriages is the pressures by inner and outer networks
of society. Crossing racial lines can bring pressure from both society
and the FOO.
Bratter and King (2008, p. 163) say that “of all the
ways individuals can form families across ascribed social boundaries,
crossing racial lines is the most controversial with contemporary
American society. Race stratifies physical, mental, and economic well
being and is a primary component of individual and family identity.”
Societies Racism and Inner Network Pressure
Richardson (2008) quotes Renee Romano (author of Race Mixing:
Black-White Marriage in Postwar America) stating, “probably the
biggest single reason that intermarriage rate has been low is because
America remains in many ways a segregated society.”
In an issue of Christianity Today, Harold (1944) tells a story of
the important relationship of intermarriage and racism. “Nothing
brings out our bidden, forgotten prejudices like interracial marriage.
Shortly before Martin Luther King, Jr. was killed, he wrote about a
woman who said to him that she had no prejudices: “I believe Negroes
should have the right to vote, the right to a good job, the right to a
decent home, and the right to have access to public accommodations. Of
course, I must confess that I would not want my daughter to marry a
Negro.” King correctly pointed out that the woman’s failure to accept
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interracial marriage negated her claims. “The question of
intermarriage is never raised in a society cured of the disease of
racism.” (Harold, 1994)”
Even today interracial couples face social pressures unknown to
intraracial couples, such as: stares from others, stereotypes, family
opposition, and mistreatment by restaurant staff, real estate agents,
retail clerks, hotel managers and coworkers (Troy, Lewis-Smith,
Laurenceau, 2006). Sixty-four percent of Black/White couples
experience negative public reaction.
Interracial couples have to deal
with racism two-fold. For example, a black may be discriminated
against because of his race by members of a different race, then, as
he takes a white wife, he may experience racism from members of his
own race (Leslie, Letiecq, 2004).
Community support is a strong predictor of the level of
commitment in a given relationship. If a couple is shown a lack of
support from close friends and family, it will more than likely
adversely impact positive functioning within the relationship (Troy,
Lewis-Smith, Laurenceau, 2006). In a study done by Golebiowska (2007),
he found that among a population of non-Hispanic whites, only 23
percent would
embrace or strongly embrace an interracial marriage
between an African American and a close member of their family.
Slightly over 37 percent would oppose or strongly oppose the union,
and the rest felt they would neither oppose nor embrace.
Who Interracially Dates and/or Marries?
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Two articles by Merton (1941) and Davis (1941) as cited by
Gullickson (2006), introduce a highly influential theory,
called the
status exchange theory, which argues that the reason blacks and whites
intermarry is to gain a higher social standing. For example, a highly
educated black man will marry a white wife, trading his educational
status for her racial status. It also works in reverse; an uneducated
white female would trade her racial status in order to gain a higher
educational status.
This theory has been proven wrong by a number of different tests,
because most interracial marriages, like intraracial marriages, are
strongly correlated with similar class and education levels
(Gullickson, ibid).
“Members of different groups that have
sufficiently reduced social distance between each other can easily
enter into dating/marital relationships. An assessment of who is
willing to engage in interracial relationships is important for
evaluating who tends to support cross-racial social interactions,”
Yancey, 2007, p. 197.
As previously mentioned there is a strong correlation between
openness to interracial relationships and marriage with the younger
age group, particularly in a college campus atmosphere (Gullickson,
2006). “Aside from its “liberating” influence, the college campus
might also have an effect on interracial unions simply by providing a
local marriage market, where blacks and whites are unusually
integrated (Gullickson, 2006, p. 291).”
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Besides young age, there is also a strong correlation between
acceptance of interracial couples and education level (Gullickson,
ibid). In a study done by Jacobson and Johnson (2006), they showed
that the odds of approval among those with a high school education or
higher were 19 percent higher than for those with less than a high
school education. They also found that those with higher income
levels, black males, less religious individuals and those living in a
metropolitan area, where they are exposed to a wider variety of
cultures, were more likely to be open and approve of interracial
marriages.
They further went on to explore the relationship between
having friends of a different race and acceptance of interracial
marriages. This was the strongest correlation. They found that when
individuals reported having close friends of another race they were
significantly more likely to approve of intermarriage.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau statistics in 2000, 570,919
black/white marriages existed in the United States. Of those only
116,000 were between white men and black women. Black men are twice as
likely to date, marry and cohabitate with women of a different or
culture than Black women (Henderson, 2007).
Most studies have found that the overall African American race is
more open to intermarriage (85 percent) than whites (Jacobson,
Johnson, 2006). However a study, done by Todd and Mckinney (1992) as
cited by Firmin and Firebaugh (2008), which surveyed 400 people in an
integrated local California community showed that younger people were
more open than older, men were more agreeable than women (similar to
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the previously cited studies), but they found that Caucasians were
slightly more open to interracial relationships. This finding was
congruent with several other studies cited in the literature review.
Within the Interracial Family
Other than all the struggles of racism and societal pressure,
interracial families must also overcome the difficulty of watching
their spouse and/or children be discriminated against.
John McFadden
(2001) says children of interracial parents will commonly experience
the social isolation that comes with not belonging to a defined group.
Therefore it is crucial for the parents to install in them a strong
sense of confidence, and help them adjust to being labeled as
“others.”
Interracial marriages between and African American are generally
met with the most hostility, so individuals in these marriages must be
prepared to face the emotional difficulties when watching their spouse
be shown discrimination. Yancey (2007) researched and interviewed
various interracial married couples, in-depth. On a particular
interview a white woman told of a time she left a bar with her husband
and shortly after driving out of the parking lot, was pulled over by a
police officer. The police officer asked her to get out of the car
while her husband remained in the drivers seat. The officer then
proceeded to ask her if she was ok, and if she was safe, insinuating
that this man intended on taking advantage of her.
The woman went on
to tell of how upset she was, as she yelled that that man was her
husband. Yancey reported that all participants felt that since their
Interracial Relationships 11
marriage, their views on both their race and their spouse’s race
changed substantially.
Individuals in interracial marriages have also reported a greater
sense of unity.
The outside stereotypes and racist views will often
cause the family to present a united front, to prove that they do
belong together and they can make it work (Leslie, Letecq, 2004).
Individuals have also reported other advantages such as learning about
new activities and cultures and expanding their cultural perspective
(Troy, Lewis-Smith, Laurenceau, 2006).
In the a study by Troy, Lewis-Smith, and Laurenceau (2006), they
found that interracial partners reported higher relationship
satisfaction than same-race couples– contrary to their hypothesis- and
similar conflict patterns and attachment styles.
“On entering intermarital relationships, both the individual and
family members of origin experience varying phases of adjustment,”
McFadden, 2001, p. 40. Family members must “respectfully attain a
level of cultural transcendency that complements the maintenance of
positive marital relationship. It is through parents, children,
family, and confidantes that racial divide is minimized and
intermarriages are maximized,” McFadden, ibid.
Conclusion
Interracial marriages face a number of unique challenges that samerace marriages don’t have to worry about. Marriage is difficult under
the most favorable circumstances, adding the complication of racial
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and cultural differences along with societal pressures can only
increase the vulnerability of the marriage.
Because of these
additional challenges, the divorce rates are higher for interracial
couples, but that doesn’t mean that there aren’t a number of happy and
successful interracial marriages across the world.
It seems obvious through the literature reviewed that as the
number of interracial marriages goes up, discrimination will be
greatly reduced and the global acceptance will continue to rise. With
the recent election of an African American to the President of the
United States, it is clear the racism is indeed depleting.
Perhaps
somewhere in the near future America will view marriages crossing any
racial boundary as equal to any other. Until then I’m sure the devoted
interracial couples will continue to fight against the biases and
challenges they face to create and maintain a happy relationship.
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References
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