ENG 1105
Alana Brassington Tutorials
TOPIC:
ESSAY WRITING
These notes are meant to assist the student to understand the writing process and to wrote a
well researched and structured essay in good English.
Note that there are assignments highlighted in yellow throughout after each major part of the
writing process. Please complete these as it will assist you to write a good essay.
This topic assists the student to learn to write academic essays during their University life. It also
assists students to develop analytical, and structured thinking skills.
The course will test your ability to:

Think critically

Organise ideas coherently

Use logical reasoning

Use Standard English (including appropriate and precise diction)
The Test
You will be given a list of topics and asked to write an essay of 350-500 words on one of them. The
Test is 1 ½ hours.
Topics are usually based on a variety of “topical” issues in Guyana, the Caribbean and internationally.
These are either one word topics such as “Suicide” or “ Poverty” for example, or may be phrases or
questions asking your opinion on an issue.
Essays written in the test will be either Argumentative or Expository essays which are the types of
essays you will mostly be required to write during your University life.
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Writing well-argued essays requires a clear structure, an appropriate use of language, and relevant
informative content. Essays are usually marked for the following:
Structure
Introduction: stating opinion clearly and beginning with a confident and effective tone
Conclusion: ending essay with a strong concluding statement
Paragraphing: good use of paragraphs with effective topic sentences
Clear and logical structure
Language
Breadth and precision of lexicon
Correct syntax
Correct grammar e. g. subject-verb agreement appropriate adjective and adverb form,
parallelism
Sentence formation e. g. clauses appropriately formed and connected
Clear essay presentation e. g. spelling, punctuation, capitalization
Use of effective transition and cohesive devices.
Content
Understanding of the issue
Some factual knowledge
Relevant illustrative examples
TYPES OF WRITING
1. Narrative
A narrative is basically story writing where events are usually presented in a chronological
order. However narrative writing can begin at the end or in the middle of a story and move
back and forward in time. Clear transitional words and phrases establish time markers and the
relationship of each event to the others. Narration is used not only to tell a story, but also a
report of an incident, a summary of events or history/background to an event. Story writing
generally include characters and have plots. It also has settings, themes and includes creative
writing techniques such as figurative language, climax, plot twists, dialogue etc.
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2. Descriptive
A descriptive essay communicates to readers how something feels, tastes, smells, sounds or
looks. The arrangement of the details is made clear by transitions that identify spatial
relationships: next to, near, beside, under, above etc. Sometimes a descriptive essay does not
have a thesis statement but is unified by a dominant impression which is the effect created by
all the details of the description.
Description is used mainly in narrative writing and some expository writing as well as
descriptive essays.
3. Expository
Expository writing includes the following types of organisation/purposes:
Exemplification – This is where a thesis statement is supported by examples. These are linked
to each other and the thesis statement with clear transitional words and phrases such as: the
first example, another reason, in addition, finally etc.
Process – A process essay explains how to do something or how something works. It
presents a series of steps in clear chronological order, using transitional words such as first,
then, next, after this, finally, etc. Some process essays are instructions which use commands
and the present tense while others explain a process and this usually use first or third person
and the past tense for a process already completed an present tense for one that occurs
regularly.
Cause and Effect – This type of essay explores causes or predict or describe results.
Transitional words and phrases: one cause, another cause, a more important result, because,
as a result of etc.
Comparison and Contrast – explain how two subjects are alike or different. Similarities and
differences are clearly identified with appropriate transitional words and phrases such as
similarly, likewise, however, in contrast etc. There are point by point comparison which looks
at each subject simqalarities and differences according to those simalarities and differences
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and then there is subject by subject comparison which treats a subject in fill and then
discusses the other subject in full.
Division and Classification – this breaks a subject into component parts and classifies or
groups items into categories. Transitional words and phrases help to distinguish categories
from one another: one kind, another group, a related category, the most important component,
etc.
4. Argumentative/Persuasive
Argumentative writing takes a position on a topic or issue and uses logic and evidence to
convince readers. This type of writing uses additional strategies to convince readers. The
topic has to be debatable, not factual. In a persuasive/argumentatie essay, the thesis
statement is very important and should clearly state the writer’s position on the particular topic.
Eg. Fact: First year students are not required to purchase a meal plan from the university.
Debatable topic: First year students should be required to purchase a meal plan from the
university.
Argumentative essays should not have logical fallacies, arguments should be logical; they
should demonstrate knowledge of the subject and maintain a reasonable tone while providing
evidence to support the argument. Such writing also needs to avoid unfair emotional appeals
but relies more heavily on examples, facts, statistics etc.
Persuasive writing on the other hand is somewhat less objective and relies heavily on
emotional appeals. It often uses less formal language and is more conversational and may
rely heavily on rhetorical strategies such as rhetorical questions, figurative language,
repetition, exaggeration, sarcasm, etc.
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Getting Started:
Know Your Purpose: Know what you want to accomplish. In general you write to express emotions,
to inform or to persuade or express an opinion on an issue.
Know your Audience: Who are you writing for? Who do you expect to read your writing? What are
their expectations, biases, needs, interests? Will they expect you to provide definitions, overviews,
examples, analogies? Is it an academic audience? Will they expect a specialised vocabulary? With
an academic audience of the same disciline you can avoid long overviews or histories and basic
definitions that readers will already be familiar with. Most university writing is directed at the
instructor. Instructors assign written work to encourage critical thinking, so the way you organise and
express your ideas are as important as the ideas themselves.
Set your Tone: Your tone conveys your attitude towards your subject and your audience. Your tone
must be consistent with your purpose. For most academic writing, you should generally use a more
distant, objective or formal tone.
Choosing a Topic:
One Word Essays:
Examples of one-word essay topics are: Films; Childhood; Newspapers.
Note that these topics are very wide and volumes have already been written on each of these.
Similarly there is a lot that you can write. The purpose of your essay on a one-word topic is not to
show how much you know but to write on one selected aspect. In other words you must narrow your
topic and focus on one aspect. And your focus will determine the type of essay you will write.
Look at the following aspects you may choose, and how each aspect determines the type of essay
you will write.
Aspect
Type of essay
Advantages and disadvantages
Argumentative
Historical development
Narrative
Importance
Expository
Different kinds
Expository
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Using Films as an essay topic, you can decide to focus on any of the above aspects. You may narrow
down your topic to:
Advantages and disadvantages of films
An argumentative essay: you may argue that some films are educational and entertaining (giving
examples) while others are not suitable for children (as promoting anti-social behaviour).
A brief history of the film industry
A narrative essay: you may discuss the changes in film-making from the Silent Era black and
white to colour films for TV videos DVDs etc. For this, you will gather relevant historical
information on the changes in film-making from various sources, such as from printed and
electronic sources.
The importance of films
Expository essay: you may explain that films provide entertainment, act as a source of
information, offer employment for producers and film stars, and expose viewers to different
cultures.
THE WRITING PROCESS
1. Planning
Research:
Assuming you've been given a topic, or have narrowed it sufficiently down, your first task is to
research this topic. Begin the essay writing process by researching your topic utilising the internet,
the academic databases, and the library, taking notes along the way.
When you conduct research, move from light to thorough resources to make sure you're moving in
the right direction. Begin by doing searches on the Internet about your topic to familiarize yourself
with the basic issues; then move to more thorough research on the Academic Databases; finally,
probe the depths of the issue by burying yourself in the library. Make sure that despite beginning on
the Internet, you don't simply end there. A research paper using only Internet sources is a weak
paper, and puts you at a disadvantage for not utilizing better information from more academic
sources.
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As you read about your topic, keep a piece of paper and pen handy to write down interesting
quotations. Make sure you write down the source and transcribe quotations accurately. Only use
quotations sparingly. On the other hand, if you're cruising through the net, you may just want to cut
and paste snippets here and there along with their URLs into a Word file, and then later go back and
sift the kernels from the chaff.
If it's a book, use post-it notes to avoid ruining the book. As you integrate research, take a little from a
lot -- that is, quote briefly from a wide variety of sources. Too many quotations from one source, will
make your essay seem unoriginal and borrowed. Too few sources and you may come off sounding
inexperienced. When you have a lot of small quotations from numerous sources, you will seem
knowledgeable, and credible as you write about your topic.
Learn to skim books: Because books are so thorough and long, you have to learn to skim. Skim the
table of contents to see if there is a chapter that is relevant. Read the introduction and the first pages
of several chapters to see if the information is really what you're looking for. Since you will still need to
cite from a variety of sources, don't spend too long immersed in the same book. Take a little
information from a lot of different books.
Researching on the Internet:
When you search the Internet, you should use a handful of different search engines. The Academic
Search Engines specialize in delivering material more suitable for college purposes, while the Popular
Search Engines help locate information on less academic topics. For example, a search string on
www.wisenut.com results in hits different from www.turbo10.com, which also results in different hits
on www.google.com and www.overture.com.
Look at the Site's Quality: With all the returns from your searches, you'll doubtless pull in a bundle of
sites, your job will be to sort through the trash. The degree of professional design and presentation of
a site should speak somewhat towards the content. Sites with black backgrounds are usually
entertainment sites, while those with white backgrounds are more information based. Sites with
colourful and garish backgrounds are probably made by novice designers. Avoid blog pages (online
journals), "free-essay" pages and pages where there are multiple applets flashing on the screen. Also
pay attention to the domain types. You should know that:

.com = commercial

.org = organization
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
.gov = government

.edu = education

.net = network
The domain type indicates a possible bias toward the information. Obviously an .org site on animal
rights is going to be a bit slanted towards one side of the issue. And if the sites try to sell you
something, like many of the "sponsored listings" that appear on the top of the hits list with search
engines, avoid them.
Mix up your search words: If you're getting too many hits, enter more keywords in the search box. If
you aren't getting enough hits, enter fewer keywords in the search box. Also try inputting the same
concept but in different words and phrases. Search Engine Watch also has a useful tutorial on how to
enter search strings, explaining how to add + and - and quotation marks to get more accurate results.
Many search engines have advanced tabs that help you search with more detail,
The Academic Databases
Almost every college subscribes to a list of academic databases where more specialized, academic
essays can be found. Each of these databases specializes in a different kind of information. For a
writing class exploring general research topics, the following four indexes are probably the most
useful:

Academic Search Premier

CQ Researcher

JSTOR

LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe
Finally, remember that you are not limited to these four databases. There are dozens more. These
five are perhaps worth checking out:

ERIC (EBSCOHost)

Oxford English Dictionary

Project Muse

Sociological Abstracts

WorldCat
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Analysis
Now that you have a good knowledge base, start analyzing the arguments of the essays you're
reading. Clearly define the claims, write out the reasons, the evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic,
and also strengths. Learning how to write an essay begins by learning how to analyze essays written
by others. In contrast to more popular reading, in the academic world, authors must supply copious
amounts of evidence and nuanced reasoning in order persuade other scholars of their ideas so you
will need to understand the principles of argument.
Identify the argument: An argument consists of two main components: a claim, and reasons for that
claim. Neither a claim without reasons, nor reasons without a claim, is an argument. When analyzing
an argument of any text, or creating one of your own, first identify the main claim and then locate all
the reasons for it. The claim is the controversial, debatable assertion of the essay, while the reasons
offer the explanations and evidence of why the claim is true. It is helpful to map this reasoning out:
CLAIM = ________________________________________

Reason 1: ____________________________

Reason 2: ____________________________

Reason 3: ____________________________
Once you have the argument mapped out, assess the reasoning. Ask yourself the following questions
to help you identify weaknesses of logic:
(1.) Is there an alternative explanation or a different reason that is possible?

Example: "John was late because he obviously doesn't care about the class." (An alternative
explanation for John's lateness could be that he got in a car wreck, and therefore couldn't
make it on time to class.)
(2.) Is the evidence presented sufficient? Evidence refers to the support given for a claim. This
support may be in the form of facts, statistics, authoritative quotations, studies, observations,
experiences, research, or other forms of proof.
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(4.) Does the writer commit any logical fallacies? Fallacies are commonly committed errors of
reasoning. Although there are many, the following six are the most common:
Hasty Generalization - Generalizing from a sample that is too small.

Example: John was late to my physics class all last semester. Therefore John is just an
unpunctual, late person. (Actually, last semester John may have had difficulty getting to
physics, but no trouble getting to his other classes.)

Example: I conclude from the several pleasant, hard-working UG students I met this morning
that all UG students are pleasant, hard-working students. (Actually, you may have just met the
only three nice students on campus.)
Faulty Cause and Effect - Attributing the wrong cause to the effect.

Example: John was late to class because he went to the dentist yesterday and had a root
canal. (Actually, John may be late for another reason.)

Example: The horses are acting strange because there's a deep storm brewing. (Actually, the
horses may be acting strange because they're hungry.)
Fallacy of Authority - Accepting for truth what is claimed simply because someone said so.

Example: John was late to class because his the school psychologist said John was having
bouts of depression and may not attend class. (Actually, what the psychologist said may be
wrong. Maybe John even lied to her.)

Example: John Grisham, an expert in law, says law is a tedious yet exciting practice. So it
must be the case that law is a tedious, exciting practice. (Actually, what Grisham says may not
be true. He hasn't supplied any reasoning for his assertion, and he's a popular fiction writer
rather than a lawyer.)
Slippery Slope - Exaggerating the consequences.

Example: If John is late to class, he'll miss the material and do poorly on the test. When his
father sees his bad grades, John will be whipped and then he'll run away and join the circus.
(Actually, John may do fine on the test even though he missed class.)

Example: Students who arrive late to class will receive low grades, which will then prevent
them from declaring their majors. If students can't declare the majors they want, they'll lead
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miserable lives fulfilling careers they hate until they finally commit suicide. (Actually, even if
students receive a low grade, it doesn't mean they won't be able to bring up their other grades
in other classes and still declare the majors they want.)
Non Sequitar - The conclusion/claim doesn't follow from the reasons.

Example: I saw John talking to a pretty girl this morning. Therefore, he is late to class because
he's probably eating lunch with her. (It doesn't follow that talking to a pretty girl would lead to a
truant luncheon.)

Example: Some cars drive recklessly along the roads where pedestrians walk, endangering
them. Therefore, we should ban pedestrians from walking down some roads. (It doesn't follow
that you should punish the pedestrians instead of the cars.)
Either/Or - Narrowing the options to just two extremes when in actuality more options exist.

Example: Either John was late because he forgot where the class was, or because he didn't
want to come. (Actually, John may have been late for another reason not listed here. Maybe
he fell down a manhole.)

Example: Either spend the entire night proofreading your paper or you will get an F in the
course. (Actually, you might ask the teacher for a one day extension so that you don't have to
kill yourself with an all-nighter. The point is that there aren't just two options.)
Brainstorming:
Brainstorming is the art of thinking critically to discover original, hidden insights about a topic.
Assuming you've done a fair amount of research, you should now have a solid base of concepts to
play around with for an essay. The task is now to stand on the shoulders of the scholars you've read
and find something original to say about the topic. It is not enough to regurgitate what they have said.
You should try to propose an original idea.
Use different techniques: Define the problem. Figure out what the problem is. Until you figure this out,
your brainstorming won't have any direction or purpose. Ask yourself not only what the problem is, but
why it is indeed a problem. Ask questions. A problem for whom? When did it first become a
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problem? What is the root of the problem? (e.g., What caused X?, How is X defined? What can X be
compared to?). Asking these questions will generate answers that may contain useful ideas.
Examine biases. Recognize that you have some unconscious biases in the way you view the world
around you. These biases could be social, economic, religious, environmental, ethnic, or cultural
predispositions that prevent you from seeing the issue in another light. Ask yourself how a person
from another walk of life might view the same problem. Step outside yourself.
Identify assumptions. An assumption is any unstated assertion that one assumes to be true, but
which may actually not be true. Every issue or problem has a few assumptions related to it. Usually
these assumptions are part of the reason why the problem is a problem in the first place. Ask yourself
what is being assumed in the topic or problem? What do people take for granted to be true? What if
this assumption were false? Look beyond the obvious.
2. Shaping the Essay
Thesis:
After researching, analyzing, and brainstorming, you should have a worthwhile insight to write about.
Now it's time to convert that worthwhile insight into a polished thesis statement, which will then guide
and shape the rest of the essay. Pick your best idea and pin it down in a clear assertion that you can
write your entire essay around. Your thesis is your main point, summed up in a concise sentence that
lets the reader know where you're going, and why. It's practically impossible to write a good essay
without a clear thesis. The thesis typically appears near the end of the introduction. Unless you have
a compelling reason to relocate the thesis from the traditional place, put it at the end of your
introductory paragraph. Readers anticipate and read closely your thesis, and they want to find a
polished statement there. The thesis expresses in one concise sentence the point and purpose of
your essay.
In an argumentative essay, your thesis must make an arguable assertion. To test whether your
assertion is arguable, ask yourself whether it would be possible to argue the opposite. If not, then it's
not a thesis -- it's more of a fact. For example:
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
Not Arguable: "Computers are becoming an efficient mechanism for managing and transmitting
information in large businesses." (Who's going to dispute this? It's not an arguable assertion -it's a fact.)

Arguable: "Heavy use of computers may disrupt family cohesion and increase divorce in
society." (This is arguable because many people may not believe it. It would make a good
thesis!)
Be specific
The thesis must also be specific. Avoid broad, vague generalizations. Your thesis should include
detail and specificity, offering the reader the why behind your reasoning.

Poor Specificity: "We should not pass the microchip bill." (Hey, not specific enough! It's just a
value statement and doesn't provide enough reasoning for the reader.)

Good Specificity: "Because the microchip insert causes serious health hazards to those who
use it, the microchip should not be passed." (Now the thesis is much more specific, and the
reader gets a clear idea of what the essay is going to be about.)
Avoid lists
If your thesis consists of a long list of points, your essay will most likely be superficial. Suppose you
had six reasons why meal plans should be offered to UG students or the bill shouldn’t be passed?
Instead of trying to cover so much ground in your essay, narrow your focus more to give greater
depth to fewer ideas, maybe discussing two or three points instead. However, if you're arguing a
longer paper, and really need to cover this much ground, still avoid the list in your thesis -- just give
the reader a general idea of your position, without being so specific.

Example of a list: "The microchip bill biologically damages the health of children, invades the
privacy of independent teenagers, turns children against their parents, and induces a sense of
robotry about the individual."
Narrower focus: "By surgically inserting circuitry similar to cell phone devices that has been
known to cause headaches and fatigue, the microchip biologically endangers the health of
children." (I've narrowed my focus to just one point -- health hazards. Now my job will be to
explore this assertion in depth. Academic writing almost always prefers depth over breadth.)
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Follow an "although . . . actually" format
The "although . . . actually" format is one of the most effective ways of finding something original and
controversial to say. In effect, you are telling someone that what he or she thought to be previously
true really isn't. You're saying, Hey, you thought X? Well, you're wrong. Really, it's Y! Whenever you
look beyond the obvious and give readers something new to consider, you're going to get their
attention. Nothing works better than this "although . . . actually" format to set you up in delivering an
insight.

Example: Although it appears that computers may help students learn to write, actually they
can become a detriment to the generation of what creative writers call "flow."

Example: Although many people believe that extraterrestials and crop circles are a figment of
the imagination, actually there is strong evidence suggested by collective, distinct anecdotes
that alien encounters are real.
Examples of effective thesis statements:
1. The real problem in our schools is not the absence of national goals and standards; it is
the absence of resources with which to implement them.
2. By providing students with the actual experience of doing scientific work, laboratory
courses encourage precise thinking, careful observation, and creativity.
Assignment:
Choose two topics that are ‘topical’ either in Guyana or internationally and construct a thesis
statement for each topic. One should be for an expository essay and the other argumentative – that
is – it should take a position on the issue.
Outline:
Sketch out your essay before straight away writing it out. Use one-line sentences to describe
paragraphs, and bullet points to describe what each paragraph will contain. Play with the essay's
order. Map out the structure of your argument, and make sure each paragraph is unified.
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Drawing up an outline allows you to think before you write. What use is there in writing the entire
paper only to realize that, had you done a little more planning beforehand, you would have organized
your essay in an entirely different way? Or that you should have omitted some paragraphs,
restructured the progression of your logic, and used more examples and other evidence? The outline
allows you to think beforehand what you're going to write so that when you do write it, if you've done
your planning right, you won't have to do as much rewriting. (You will still, of course, need to revise.)
Make your points brief. The titles, headings, and points in your outline should be about one line each.
Keep each line under a dozen words. If you can't compress your point into a one-liner, you probably
don't have a clear grasp of what you're trying to say.
When you describe the point of each paragraph, phrase the point in a mini-claim. If the point of a
paragraph is that soft drugs should be legal because they are relatively harmless, don't just write "soft
drugs" as the point of the paragraph in your outline -- it's too brief and vague. Instead, write "drugs
should be legal b/c soft drugs are harmless." This description is still brief, as it should be (one line or
less), but it makes a claim that gives it purpose in the outline.
Drawing up an outline allows you to see at a glance how each of the paragraphs fits into the larger
picture. When looking at your paragraphs from this perspective, you can easily shift around the order
to see how a reorganization might be better. Remember that each paragraph in the essay should
support the position or argument of your paper.
As you're shifting paragraphs around, put what you want the reader to remember either first or last,
not in the middle. Studies in rhetoric have shown the readers remember least what is presented in the
middle of an essay. Hence, the middle is where you should probably put your weaker arguments and
counterarguments.
Some writers urge a climactic arrangement, one that works up to your strongest point, which is
delivered as a kind of grand finale. Another successful arrangement is the inductive argument, in
which you build up the evidence first, and then draw conclusions. A problem-solution format involves
presenting the problem first and then outlining the solution — this works well for some topics because
it is a soft version of the scientific method. Whatever your choice, choose an arrangement that
presents a clear, logical argument.
Once you have narrowed down your essay topic you can plan and organize your essay and control its
content. So draw up your essay outline, that is map the various parts of your essay.
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For example you may consider this type of outline:
Main idea 1
1. 1 sub-idea
1. 1. 1 sub-division of idea
1. 1. 2 sub-division of idea
1. 2 sub-idea
1. 2. 1 sub-division of idea
1. 2. 2. sub-division of idea
Main idea 2
2. 1. 1 sub-division of idea
2. 1. 2 sub-division of idea
2. 2 sub-idea
2. 2. 1 sub-division of idea
2. 2. 2. sub-division of idea
Practice with Outlines
Instructions: The following statements represent eight separate paragraphs in a hypothetical
essay on the legalization of drugs. Position the points in the most reasonable, persuasive
order possible.
Counterargument--legalization may send wrong msg, but no more than legal. of alcohol
Drug dealers/users arrested aren't "corrected" in prison; money wasted
War on drugs ineffective; new strategy needs to be tried
Illegality of drugs drives up black market prices, making dealing highly profitable
Losing war; must alter strategy with new methods; example of Sweden's success
Prison for drug dealers/users costs billions in tax payer dollars; money wasted
Legalization would remove high profit incentive that motivates drug dealing
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Assignment:
Using the thesis statements already constructed, make an outline of your intended essay using the
format provided above.
3. Drafting
Introduction:
The introduction should grab the reader's attention, set up the issue, and lead in to your thesis. Your
intro is merely a build-up of the issue, a stage of bringing your reader into the essay's argument.
(Note: The title and first paragraph are probably the most important elements in your essay. In the
first paragraph you either hook the reader's interest or lose it. In the real world, readers make up their
minds about whether or not to read your essay by glancing at the title and introduction alone.)
To grab the reader's attention, you might present . . .

an interesting fact

a surprising piece of information

an exciting quotation

an intriguing paradox

an explanation of an odd term

a short narrative/anecdote (not fiction)

a provocative question
Jump right into the Issue: In a short essay (under 1,000 words), a lengthy introduction is hardly
needed. After getting the reader's attention, just jump right into the issue and begin directly, perhaps
describing a specific, concrete situation -- presumably the context of the problem you're exploring.
Avoid beginning your essay with broad statements or bland generalizations such as "X is becoming
an issue . . . " or "Throughout time man has wondered . . . ." Do not begin so broad and general that
the first several sentences could fit nearly any essay in the world. For example:

Too General: Crime has been an issue throughout time.

More Specific: The question of the severity of punishments for juveniles is an issue that has
garnered attention due to the increasing number of juvenile shootings in the last several years.

Too General: Man has always wondered about the meaning of information.
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
More Specific: The Age of Information brought about through the digital revolution of
computers has posed significant questions about the value and worth of this information: Does
having instant access to every newspaper and journal blog in the world make us more
intelligent, value-based people?
In other words, don't tire your reader with long introductions that fail to get quickly to the point and
issue. Begin with specifics and jump right into the problem or conflict you are addressing. When
readers see a good conflict, they are likely to take an interest in it.
Present your thesis: The entire introduction should lead toward the presentation of your arguable
assertion, or thesis, whereby you take a stand on the issue you are discussing. Deliver your thesis at
the end of the introduction so that your reader knows what general position you will take in your
essay. You don't need to spell out all the details of your thesis in the introduction, particularly if it
would be bulky and unintelligible to the reader, but you should give the reader a good idea of what
your argument is. As you do this, avoid saying "I will discuss . . ." or "I intend to argue . . ."
Assignment: Draft your introductory paragraph for one of the topics you have chosen. Note
that you would have already decided when writing the outline, what information would be in
the paragraph. Ensure that the thesis statement is placed appropriately in the paragraph.
Paragraphs:
Each individual paragraph should be focused on a single idea that supports your thesis. Begin
paragraphs with topic sentences, support assertions with evidence, and expound your ideas in the
clearest, most sensible way you can. Each paragraph should have a clear, singular focus to it. If there
is an overriding error students make in writing essays, it is shifting topics within the same paragraph,
rather than continuing to develop the same idea they began with. A paragraph is a discrete unit of
thought that expands one specific idea, not three or four. Nothing will help you keep a tighter focus on
your paragraphs than topic sentences. A topic sentence is generally the first sentence of the
paragraph, and it describes the claim or point of the paragraph, thus orienting the reader to the
purpose of the paragraph. When you use topic sentences, your reader will invariably find it easier to
follow your thoughts and argument. If you're writing a long research essay (10 + pages), you might
consider using headings
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Invariably students shift topics and lose focus within their paragraphs because they do not know how
to adequately develop their ideas. They usually know the paragraph needs to be longer, but they
don't know how to expand their idea to fill that length. Indeed a paragraph should be at least half a
page long, but usually no more than one page. How, then, if you don't have enough to say, do you fill
that paragraph length? Instead of broadening the focus, which will only be another form of topic
shifting, try implementing these techniques for development:

illustrate your idea with examples

give an authoritative quotation

anticipate and respond to counterarguments

back your ideas with more evidence

offer another perspective to the idea

brainstorm more insights about the idea

elaborate on causes/effects, definitions, comparison/contrasts
The function of a paragraph may be:








To provide a brief overview of the issue
To give operational definitions of terms used in the essay
To describe a process
To illustrate a particular point by providing relevant examples
To discuss advantages and disadvantages of a particular line of action
To provide a description of a cause and effect of a particular action (expository)
To compare and contrast
To elicit an idea by providing details
Let’s examine how paragraphs are constructed de-constructing the student essay Famous
Women in History.
Here is a sample essay and discussion in relation to the above criteria: The topic given was Women
and the student decided to limit the topic to Famous Women in History.
I saw on television the other day a female athlete being awarded for running a mile in under six
minutes. While her performance falls short of that of a certain male athlete Roger Bannister whose
time was four minutes she has definitely set a historical record where women athletes are concerned.
There are also other women whose performances in various fields have been outstanding throughout
history and I will discuss four who have become household names. (Thesis)
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In the field of nursing Florence Nightingale distinguished herself for her bravery and tender loving
care in nursing soldiers severely wounded during the Crimean War. In those days before electricity
was commonplace Nurse Nightingale was named “The Lady with the Lamp” because accompanied
by her candle she tried to ensure the comfort of the soldiers on her nightly rounds. There is no record
of the number of soldiers who owed their lives to her tender care.
Another famous woman in history is Queen Victoria whose reign lasted for 64 years (1837-1901).
It was during her reign that slavery was eventually abolished putting an end to the merciless
sufferings of thousands of Africans uprooted from their native land for servile labour on the sugar
estates in the West Indies. Millions of lives had been sacrificed before its abolition in 1838.
Where philanthropy is concerned Mother Theresa comes to mind. She is a typical example of
how pity can be translated to ease the suffering of the old the ill and the outcast. Turning her back on
her native country Algeria she adopted India as her home and established an order of nuns that is
now worldwide in their attempt to bring relief to the poor and suffering.
Rosa Parks is also famous as the black American woman who refused to move to the back of the
bus at the end of a tiring day to which black people were confined during the days of segregation.
Her refusal was the beginning of the fight for equality by the black community. Today health
education and travel are all available to every American city regardless of colour class or creed.
There are also many simple women down the ages whose names will never appear in the records
of history. There are the mothers who ensure that their children are trained to be good citizens; there
are the teachers who instil methods of discipline in their students; there are also those who work in
the fields so that food can be put on the table. To the families friends and those whose lives have
been touched by these women they will always be as famous as the four discussed above.
Par 1: The opening paragraph serves as the introduction. Using a conversational style, it
indicates the focus of the essay.
Par 2: This is an expository paragraph. It briefly describes Florence Nightingale’s
accomplishments which made her famous.
Par 3: This paragraph uses cause and effect, that is Queen Victoria decided (cause) to
abolish slavery (effect). This decision made her famous.
Par 4: This paragraph uses narrative writing techniques to relate how suffering can be eased.
Par 5: This paragraph uses cause and effect, that is Rosa Park’s action (cause) brought about
racial equality (effect).
Par 6: This paragraph begins with a brief contrast to women whose actions were not recorded
in history, hence are not remembered.
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Conclusion:
Gracefully exit your essay by making a quick wrap-up sentence, and then end on some
memorable thought, perhaps a quotation, or an interesting twist of logic, or some call to action. Is
there something you want the reader to walk away and do? Let him or her know exactly what.
Recap your main idea: If your essay was long and complex, sometimes difficult to follow, in the
conclusion you'll want to recap your ideas in a clear, summarizing manner. You want your readers to
understand the message you intended to communicate. However, if your essay was short and simple,
don't insult your readers by restating at length the ideas they already understand. Strike a balance
according to what you feel your readers need. In a short essay (600 words or less), any recapitulation
should be brief (about 2 sentences), and rephrased in a fresh way, not just cut and pasted from the
thesis.
Leave a memorable impression - It's not enough just to restate your main ideas -- if you only did that
and then ended your essay, your conclusion would be flat and boring. You've got to make a graceful
exit from your essay by leaving a memorable impression on the reader. You need to say something
that will continue to simmer in the reader's minds long after he or she has put down your essay. To
leave this memorable impression, try . . .

giving a thought-provoking quotation

describing a powerful image

talking about consequences or implications

stating what action needs to be done

ending on an interesting twist of thought

explaining why the topic is important
Keep it short: Keep your conclusion short, probably ten lines or less, and avoid fluff. You're just trying
to make a clever exit, and presumably all the really important points have been made previously in
your essay. You should not introduce any totally new ideas in the conclusion; however, you should
not merely repeat your thesis either. This situation -- not presenting anything new, and neither just
sticking with the old -- at first seems to be a paradox. However, with a little effort, one of the above six
methods will usually yield "a quiet zinger," as John Tribble calls it.
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Examples of Real Conclusions
Moving towards the general
The practice of rhetoric involves a careful attention to the characteristics and preferences of the
audience for whom the writer intends the message. Although Syfers' and Limpus' essays might be
somewhat out of place for a contemporary audience, in the 1970s they were not. However, as argued
throughout this essay, it is Syfers' memorable sarcasm and wit that ultimately win over her audience.
Being humorous while also driving home a worthwhile point is a difficult feat to accomplish in writing.
Because Syfers accomplishes it so well, she seems to have stepped over the boundaries of time and
reached a much larger audience than she may have originally intended.
Talking about implications or consequences
I am quite convinced that what hinders progress in the Arab world is the absence of a free press. The
dirt in our society has been swept under the carpet for too long. But I am certain that this won't be the
case for much longer. Arabs are beginning to engage in lively debate over their political and social
predicament. And Al-Jazeera offers a ray of hope. Already, other Arab stations are imitating The
Opposite Direction, though with limitations. Press freedom leads to political freedom. Someday, in
spite of the attempts by today's totalitarian rulers, a free Arab press may help to create real
democracy in the Arab world.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Assignment: Consider the Student essay below. Note how the argument is organised in
keeping with the thesis statement and the topic sentence in each paragraph. Try to identify
and construct the general outline by identifying the topic sentences and the supporting
“evidence” or examples.
Topic: The Danger of Stereotyping minorities
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Thesis statement: Stereotypes are not only limiting to me, but also dangerous to the nation
because they challenge the image of the United States as a place where people can be
whatever they want to be.
Essay:
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My Problem: Escaping the Stereotypes of the “Model Minority”
The United States prides itself on being a nation where diverse cultures intermingle to form a unique
and enlightened society. However, in reality, the existence of so many different cultures in America
often causes misunderstandings within the society. These misunderstandings result from most
people’s lack of knowledge about other cultures. The unique characteristic of American culture is its
genuine desire to understand and embrace the wide range of traditions and values of its people. Still,
as an Asian American I am frequently confronted about other people’s ideas about who I am and how
I should behave. Such stereotypes are not only limiting to me, but also dangerous to the nation
because they challenge the image of the United States as a place where people can be whatever
they want to be.
Introductory paragraph presents a basic background. Thesis in red.
Within the last twenty years, the United States has experience a sharp rise in the number of Asian
immigrants, and these immigrants, and their children are stereotyped. First generation immigrants
are seen as an underclass of poor people who struggle in low paying jobs, working long hours so that
their children will have a better future. Along with the view of the first generation Asian Americans is
driven, low skilled workers comes the notion that all Asian American children are hard workers who
are pushed by their families to succeed. Asian children are seen as intelligent, but only in terms of
scientific and technical knowledge. The media like to point out that most Asians succeed only in
math, science and engineering, and that a disproportionately large number of Asian college students
identify themselves as pre-med. What the media seem to forget is that many other immigrant groups
also value success. In a larger sense, America has always been seen as the land of opportunity,
where everyone is in search of the American Dream.
First body paragraph: Common stereotypes applied to Asian Americans.
Many of my college friends assume that I am some kind of robot. They think that I must either be a
science or engineering major and that my parents force me to study many hours each day. They
believe all my free time and my social life in pursuit of a high grade point average. Naturally, these
assumptions are incorrect. My friends are really surprised when I tell them that I take drawing
classes and I am majoring in Political Science – not as a stepping stone into law school, but as a
foundation for a liberal arts education. They are also surprised to find that I am not particularly quiet
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or shy, that I do not play a musical instrument and that I do not live in China Town (I don’t know why
this surprises people; I am not even Chinese).
2nd Parag.: Stereotype applied to student himself.
I tried to see these stereotypes as harmless. But they aren’t. Even neutral or positive stereotypes
can have negative consequences. For example, teachers have always had unreasonably high
expectations of me, and these expectations have created pressure for academic success. And even
though teachers expect me to do well, they expect me to excel only in certain areas. So, they have
encouraged me to take AP math and science classes, try out for a band, sign p for an advanced
computer seminar and join the chess club. No one has ever suggested that I (or any other Asian
American I know) pursue athletics, creative writing or debating. I spent my high school years trying to
be what other people wanted me to be, and I got to be pretty good at it.
3rd parag: Negative effects of stereotypes on students.
I realise now, however, that I have been limited and that similar stereotypes also limit the options that
other groups have. The law says we can choose our activities and choose our careers, but things do
not always work out that way. Often, because of long held stereotypes, we are gently steered (by
peers, teachers, bosses, parents, and even by ourselves) in a certain direction, towards some options
and away from others. We may have come a long way from the time when African Americans were
expected to be domestics or blue collar workers, Latinos to be migrant farmers or gardeners, and
Asians to be restaurant workers, but at the college, high school and even elementary school levels,
students are expected to follow certain pre-determined paths, and too often these expectations are
based on culture, not on interests or abilities.
4th Parag.: Negative effects of stereotypes on society.
Most people do not fit these cultural stereotypes, for example, not all Asians fit into the overachieving, success oriented mould. When children come from an economically disadvantaged
background as the children of some recent Asian immigrants do, they must work and study hard. But
this situation is only temporary. As Asian children become more assimilated into American society,
they do retain the traditional Asian values of hard work and family obligations – but they also acquire
the American drive for individualism. I know from my own experience that the stereotypes applied to
Asians are not accurate. In the same way, people of other ethnic groups know that the cultural
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stereotypes applied to them are not valid. My problem is not just my problem, because the ethnic and
cultural stereotypes are never harmless. Whenever someone is stereotyped, that person has fewer
choices. And the freedom to choose our futures, to be whoever we want to be, is what living in the
United States is supposed to be all about.
5th parag: Conclusion. What techniques does the writer use in the conclusion? What does he seek to
do in the conclusion?
4. Citation
Format your essay according to the correct guidelines for citation. All borrowed ideas and quotations
should be correctly cited in the body of your text, followed up with a Works Cited (references) page
listing the details of your sources. You need to give credit to the author by citing his or her work using
a standard referencing style (e. g. MLA APA Chicago Harvard…). Failing to do so that is using an
author’s work and passing it off as your own is called plagiarism. Plagiarism is a non-referenced use
of someone else’s ideas. It is an extremely serious offence and leads to an assignment being
awarded 0. There are different levels of plagiarism ranging from failure to adequately paraphrase
although the source is acknowledged to copying verbatim from an author’s work without
acknowledging the source. Remember that as a university student you are to uphold the precepts of
academic integrity.
When using ideas or phrases from other writers in your own essay, you must correctly cite in your text
exactly where the ideas or phrases come from. Correctly identifying these ideas and phrases is called
"in-text citation," and the page at the end of your essay listing the sources you used is called a
"Works Cited" page.
Different disciplines follow different style guides for in-text citation and Works Cited pages, learn to
use the correct format required for your discipline. Although there are many details and rules about
incorporating research into your essay, the following five basic principles will help you correctly
integrate sources in your essay.
Make sure all authors cited in the body of your essay also appear on the Works Cited page. If you
quote Jones, Smith, and Johnson in your essay, these three authors should appear with full
documentation on the Works Cited page. Don't forget them. Likewise, all the authors or sources listed
in the Works Cited page should appear in the body of your essay. There should be no sources listed
on the Works Cited page that were not cited in your actual essay.
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There are three main ways to integrate quotations into your essay: (1) direct quotation, (2)
paraphrase, and (3) mixed quotation. You should usually paraphrase the material, and only directly
quote it or give a mixed quotation when the phrasing of the quotation is interesting or catchy in some
pleasing way -- quote when the text is quotable, in other words (like the quotation on the homepage
of this site).
Only quote catchy or memorable phrases or sentences: If the source you're quoting is unremarkable
and dry in its expression or opinion, don't bring that unremarkable, dry text into your own writing as
well. Paraphrase this material instead, and follow up your paraphrase with the author's name in
parentheses (or the article title, if there is no author). Only quote catchy, memorable, quotable
phrases, and keep the quotations short -- one or two lines usually. In general you want to quote
sparingly and preserve your own voice.
Follow up your quotations with commentary, interpretation, or analysis: Avoid just dropping in the
quotation and then immediately moving on, assuming the reader fully understands the meaning,
purpose, and application of the quotation just presented. You almost always should comment on the
quotation in some way, even if your commentary is a simple re-explanation of what the quotation
means ("In other words . . ."). Remember that you're taking the quotation from an article you've read,
but the reader only gets a glimpse of that whole article and lacks the context that you have, so it
might be more difficult for the reader to understand it. Because the essay is supposed to represent
your ideas, not just those of another, you must find some way to comment or analyze what you
summarize or quote.
Use signal phrases to introduce your quotations: A signal phrase is a clause before the quotation that
identifies the author (e.g., "Jones says," or "According to Jones . . ."). Signal phrases are essential to
create a bridge between your own voice and that of another you are incorporating into your essay. If
you identify the author in the signal phrase, don't also identify author in parentheses following the
quotation.
Also, don't put the article title in the signal phrase unless you want to draw particular attention it.
Including the article title in your signal phrase usually results in a long, clunky pre-quote phrase that
takes the focus off the quotation.

Example of a clunky pre-quote signal phrase: According to the article "Censorship in American
High School Reading Classes," Twain's Huckleberry Finn has been "sacrificed to the gods of
26
political correctness, without any attention to its literary merits." (Avoid putting the article title in
the signal phrase.)

Example of redundancy: Mark Twain says the secret to success is "making your vocation your
vacation" (Twain.) (We don't need Twain identified twice!)
Special note--"qtd. in": Suppose you're using a quotation that appears inside an article written by
someone other than the one saying the quotation. In other words, if you're using, say, Judge William's
quotation that appears within Mary Jones' article, you cite it by writing "qtd. in" following the quote. If
so, write "qtd. in Jones," or whomever.

Example: According to Judge Williams, "just law is the foundation of a just society" (qtd. in
Jones).
If Jones is just paraphrasing Williams, then you would omit the "qtd. in" and just write (Jones).
5. Revision
i.
Proofreading
ii.
Revising for Structure, Language, Unity
iii.
Editingfor /correcting spelling and grammatical mistakes
You're not done writing your essay until you've polished your language by correcting the
grammar, making sentences flow, incoporating rhythm, emphasis, adjusting the formality,
giving it a level-headed tone, and making other intuitive edits. Proofread until it reads just how
you want it to sound. Writing an essay can be tedious, but you don't want to bungle the hours
of conceptual work you've put into writing your essay by leaving a few slippy misppallings and
pourly wordedd phrazies..
This will be covered at a later time.
Sample Essay Topics
1) Guyanese politicians benefit from strained Race Relations.
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2) Sensationalism continues to be the hallmark of journalism in Guyana.
3) Being single is not always a disadvantage.
4) Sports.
5) Technological advancement at the University of Guyana is yet to impact the student population
and the University as a whole.
6) The natural joys of life are drowned in the everyday pursuits to make a living.
7) Poverty
8) Teenage Suicide
9) Declining Moral Standards
10) Teenage pregnancy
11) Domestic Violence
12) Society is responsible when young people become delinquent.
13) The rise in membership of health clubs is a welcome.
14) It is lack of education not lack of money which leads to poor health among Guyanese.
15) Terrorism.
16) The free distribution of condoms will do more to stop the spread of AIDS than the promotion of
abstinence.
17) The significant inventions/discoveries during the 20th century.
18) Corporal Punishment
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