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Water Services Trust Fund & GIZ
Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas
Table of Contents
1
Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction ..................................................................... 2
2
Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas ...................................................................... 2
3
Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas ................................................ 5
3.1
Informal Settlements .................................................................................................. 6
3.2
Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing .................................................. 7
3.3
Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas .......................................................... 8
3.4
Urban Sub-Centres ...................................................................................................... 9
3.5
Large Rural Centres with Urban Characteristics and Low Income Housing .............. 10
3.6
Urban IDP Camps/Settlements ................................................................................. 10
3.7
Peri-Urban Areas ....................................................................................................... 10
4
Water supply in Low-Income Urban Areas....................................................................... 11
5
Posters of Low Income Urban Areas ................................................................................ 12
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
2
Water Services Trust Fund & GIZ
Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas
1
Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction
Kenya’s cities and towns are complex socio-economic and cultural entities characterised by
a marked patterns of economic differentiation. In some cities and towns, low-income areas
can be easily identified and have clear borders. Kibera and Mathare in Nairobi are clear
examples of large well delineated informal settlements. In other towns, however, the urban
poor reside in small formal estates or in rented accommodation which are surrounded by
commercial plots or by high incomes housing.
2
Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas
Many urban low income areas share the following characteristics:
Water supply and sanitation:
 Areas lack or have limited access to basic services such as safe water, and sanitation.
 The existing infrastructure is usually in poor technical condition, not user-friendly
and poorly managed.
 Where WSS services are available they are usually shared. Residents use community
stand pipes and shared ablution blocks.
 Residents rely on informal water and sanitation service providers (water resellers, )
 The price residents have to pay for water is not regulated.
 The quality of water fetched from sources within the area (boreholes, protected
open wells, etc.) is poor.
 Lack of space (due to poor planning and high population densities) needed for the
provision of basic infrastructure/services such as roads, safe water, adequate
sanitation, drainage and solid waste management.
Population, layout and infrastructure:

High population densities.

Many low income areas have not been constructed according to a proper layout
plan.

Plots usually accommodate more than one household (in some informal urban areas
a single plot can accommodate up to 35 households).
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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
Most low income areas are located on marginalised land (areas with a high water
table or situated on top of hills, etc.).

Most low income areas have poor infrastructure (roads, drainage) and services (solid
waste collection).
Land ownership:

Many residents lack security of tenure.

The areas are either planned or unplanned. Planned (formal) low income areas are
mostly found on Government or County land.

Many residents are renting their accommodation.

Many tenants live in flats which they share with other tenants. Quite often the
landlord also resides on the plot.

Landowners often lack the financial resources to construct proper houses and to
invest in proper water supply and sanitation.

Land is object of speculation of power-brokers, who are not really interested in
developing it.

Obtaining land for the construction of WSS infrastructure (such as water kiosks and
public sanitation facilities) is usually a challenge.

Most of these settlements are on marginalized land (flood prone, mountains etc)

Land tenure patterns in urban low income areas differ from region to region:



Communal land in North Eastern Kenya.
Private land in Western Kenya (for example, Kisumu).
Council and Government land in Nairobi.
Type of housing:
 Housing in informal settlements, can be either permanent or temporal. The quality
of housing often depends on the land tenure. Residents who own the land they
occupy tend to put up permanent structures whilst residents who do not own the
land tend to put up temporal structures. For example in Kisumu, a large proportion
of residents living in low income areas have title deeds which explains why these
areas tend to have a mixture of permanent and temporary houses. Low income
areas in Kisumu are either found on privately owned land, Trust Land, or on land
owned by the Council. In rural towns some settlements are located on Trust land but
further investigations often reveal that titles to the land (trust land) have been
issued to other people without the knowledge of the current occupants.
Socio-economic situation:

Most residents (but not all residents) have low income levels.

Unemployment levels, and youth unemployment levels in particular, are high.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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
Many residents are active in the informal sector of the local economy and derive an
income from small-scale businesses, trade and casual labour (piece work).

Residents in formal employment are mainly Government or Council employees, shop
attendants, security guards, drivers, (etc.) with low incomes.

Residents lack information on many issues and as a result many do not know their
rights.

Mixed social economic make-up of the areas (the majority of the residents are
renting the houses they live in, others are owned and are Landlords, high
unemployment levels, the well-to-do businessmen etc.).
Community characteristics:
 Low income areas often lack social cohesion. This can often be attributed to the
mobility of their residents. In informal settlements social cohesion tends to be
higher than in planned low income settlements.
 Community participation in low income areas is often lacking.
 Strong presence, in some urban low income areas of civil society organizations and
registered groups.
Policy and development interventions:
 Policy negligence. Governments tend to ignore urban low income areas when
preparing the national budget.
 Residents are often not consulted during the preparation of development
interventions or the choice of technologies that aim to improve the living conditions
in urban low-income areas.
 Wrong technologies or poor designs are often adopted to improve infrastructure in
low income settlements. Adapted technologies and the preferences and priorities of
residents are often not considered.1
 The authorities should also develop master plans and coordinate developments.
 Land owners are not involved in the planning and implementation of projects which
require land and aim to improve the welfare of the residents. This means that
beneficiaries should be ready to offer land and legal documents signed between the
stakeholders.

Development interventions tend to focus upon providing infrastructure instead of
investing in people and improving capacities.
Public health:
 The public health situation in many urban low income areas is poor. This can be
attributed to:
1
For example, in areas with high population densities that lack a proper layout, there may be need to
develop an overhead piping technology for water supply.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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o High population densities.
o Lack of safe water, adequate sanitation, drainage and waste collection
systems.
o Poor hygienic practices of residents.
o Absence of community health education and sensitization programmes.
o Lack of health facilities (clinics, hospitals, etc.).
3
Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas
This paragraph contains descriptions of the various types of urban low income areas found
in Kenya. These areas share many of the characteristics presented in the previous sections.
These descriptions are based upon discussions with stakeholders and field visits.
Most urban low income areas are included in the online pro-poor database of the WSTF;
MajiData (www.majidata.go.ke ).
Many urban low income areas are suitable for the introduction and sustainable operation of
urban pro-poor water supply solutions, such as water kiosks, prepaid yard taps and
improved public- and plot level sanitation facilities.
The following low income urban areas are described in more detail:
1. Informal settlements with informal housing.
2. Planned areas with formal low income housing.
3. Planned areas with informal housing.
4. Semi urban sub-centres.
5. (Semi-permanent) refugee camps.
6. Large rural centres.
A description of peri-urban areas has been included to show that these areas are not
suitable for urban WSS solutions.
Table 1 contains the descriptions of the types of low income urban areas. Posters of a
number of types of low income areas are presented in Chapter 5.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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Table 1: Urban WSTF-funded projects should target the low income urban areas
Area
Housing
Planned urban area
Unplanned urban area
Formal housing
Informal housing
 Planned low income areas with formal low
income housing (Council estates, etc.)
 Planned low income areas with informal
housing
 Pockets (plots or compounds) of low income
formal housing found within residential or
commercial areas
 Pockets (plots or compounds) of low
income informal housing found within
residential or commercial areas
 Planned semi-urban sub-centres with formal
low income housing
 Planned semi-urban sub-centres with
informal low income housing
 Planned large rural centres with urban
characteristics and formal low income
housing
 Planned large rural centres with urban
characteristics and informal low income
housing

Formal low income housing in unplanned
urban areas

Informal urban
informal housing

(Semi-permanent)
camps
settlements
urban
3.1 Informal Settlements
Informal settlements are often referred to as “slums” or “urban slums”. Their residents are called
“slum dwellers” or “squatters”. Residents often depend on a small number of house/yard
connections, springs and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in
slums (such as Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets.
Most slums are un-planned, often illegal, urban settlements with high population densities,
poor service levels, and low incomes associated with lack of social cohesion.
The land occupied by the residents of these slums is owned by the County, the Government
or by private individuals. In some cases, the land was allocated to the squatters. For
example, in Kipsonge area in Kitale, squatters have occupied the land for a number of
decades. Most houses in slum areas are constructed with what might be labelled as
temporary materials. Substandard housing in slum areas is considered to be the result of
high poverty levels and/or insecurity of tenure.
The water supply and sanitation situation in most slums is poor. As far as water supply is
concerned, residents often depend on a small number of house/yard connections, springs
and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in slums (such as
Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets.
Not surprisingly residents and local health experts mention the high incidence of waterrelated diseases such as typhoid.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
with
refugee
7
Discussions with slum residents indicate that few households are able and willing to invest
in house or yard connections. Most households are poor and simply lack the financial
resources to invest in a house connection and to pay the monthly water bill. Others, who
can afford, are not willing to invest in a house connection because of the insecurity of
tenure.
It is important to note that even in the informal settlements many residents are renting
their accommodation. It is common practice that the landlord or landlady resides in a flat
within the same compound.
Water kiosks are the most feasible and sustainable solution for these informal settlements.
3.2 Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing
Planned low income housing areas or estates with high population densities, dilapidated water
supply and sanitation systems (e.g. Council and Government housing estates).
In many cities and towns there are formal (planned) low-cost housing estates which are
owned by the County or by other (parastal) organisations.2 The tenants occupying the flats
(one estate may have up to 35 flats), either do not pay rent or the rent is deducted from the
breadwinner’s salary (in case he or she works for the County). Income levels of most families
are very low.
In the past some of the estates were supplied through water kiosks, but in most cases these
kiosks were disconnected a number of years ago and the residents were told to apply for
house or yard connections. This did not happen as residents (who seemed to be aware of
the costs involved of acquiring a connection) lack the financial resources to pay for a
connection and in most cases even lack the finances needed to pay the monthly water bill.
In Kitale and Naivasha many residents of such estates have to walk relatively long distances
and fetch water at a relatively high price (KSh 3.00/20-litre container). 3
Improving water supply only would leave the problem of the dilapidated ablution blocks
unaddressed. In many estates these ablution blocks are equipped with flush toilets
connected to the sewer. In many cases these toilets are still being used (the sewer still
flows) and the water for flushing is fetched from nearby springs or taps. In the rainy season
rainwater is used for the same purpose.
2
Many of these estates have centrally located ablution blocks linked to septic tanks.
3
Residents in Kitale stated they would prefer to have their old and abandoned kiosks rehabilitated
and re-commissioned. According to residents, paying for water on a daily basis is preferred by
households with low and/or irregular incomes. Even if kiosk water is more expensive, the fact that the
household can pay a relatively small amount, just to satisfy the needs of that particular day or the next
day, offers the household the much needed flexibility.
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Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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3.3 Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas
Informal housing in planned urban areas where plot owners have title deeds. Sometimes the plots
with informal housing constitute small pockets which are surrounded by well constructed homes
or commercial properties.
In many cities and towns, low-income informal housing can be found in planned areas
where individuals or organisations hold title deeds to the land or where land is owned by
the Government. Officially land has to be developed in accordance with the plans and bylaws of the County. As the enforcement of these by-laws is often lacking,4 many landlords
have taken the opportunity to ignore existing housing guidelines and standards and to
develop cheap sub-standard housing for families with low incomes. In most cases landlords
have invested in compounds that consist of flats which are rented out. Many houses are
made of clay and other temporary building materials.5
Sub-standard/informal housing is found in almost all sections of the 3 western towns. Most
flats are occupied by low-income households.6
According to the Town Clerk of Webuye, the non-enforcement of by-laws and building
requirements and regulations explains why in Webuye proper housing structures (homes,
flats, etc.) are often surrounded by sub-standard housing and why small-scale industries are
found in residential areas. In other words, there often exists a discrepancy between the
existing development plans and what can be found “on the ground”.7 In these areas the
pattern of social and economic differentiation is marked: Poor households live amidst
wealthier residents. This also means that in the 3 western towns poverty is not confined to
specific areas.
Water supply in the compounds (plots) varies. Some landlords have invested in yard taps
and VIPs and even in indoor plumbing. A significant proportion of landlords, however, lack
the financial resources or are unwilling to invest in proper water supply and sanitation for
their tenants. Some yard connections are equipped with a water meter but many yard
connections still have to be metered.
4
According to the Town Clerk of Webuye, there is no political will to enforce by-laws and regulations.
5
All plots (even after a sub-division exercise) have been surveyed and are usually accessible as all
roads and pathways are owned by the County.
6
Housing cannot always be used as a poverty indicator. Some urban residents living in informal
housing prefer to invest their income in their house in the village and in their farming enterprise. When
working in town, they do not bother to look for proper accommodation. Strong ties with the rural areas
and lack of land in the urban areas, may also explain why only a small proportion of households
occupying informal housing in planned urban areas, is engaged in urban gardening.
7
According to the Town Clerk of Webuye (the interview took place in 2006) there was no proper
coordination between developers, landlords and the Municipal Council.
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Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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Where un-metered and metered yard taps are found, water is often included in the rent.
However, the rent of flats which are supplied through metered yard taps tends to be
significantly higher.
In many flats, tenants have to share a single yard tap. Access to the yard tap is in most cases
restricted to the tenants. A number of landlords explained that they do not want to operate
their yard tap as a kind of kiosk as it is already difficult enough to ensure that tenants pay
their rent.
In some estates water is rationed by most landlords.8 A considerable number of un-metered
yard taps have been disconnected by the Company due to non-payment of water bills.
The sale of water to neighbours mainly occurs at un-metered yard taps.9 WSPs, therefore,
should consider supplying these areas, especially where there are large numbers of lowincome compounds, through water kiosks.
In some areas, however, there will be a large demand for house connections. The Project
should be able to make reliable assessments of that demand. In some estates many flats
had water connections before supply got cut off or simply stopped.
3.4 Urban Sub-Centres
An urban sub-centre can be defined as a relatively small urban centre, which is situated at some
distance from the main town.
Most sub-centres and large rural centres have a small commercial centre and socioeconomic infrastructure (health centre, one or more schools, a market). Most sub-centres
and many large rural centres are linked to the electricity grid and many sub centres are
found along main tarmac roads (for example, Bukembe which is situated along the Webuye
– Bungoma road).
The water supply situation in many sub-centres is not good.10 Some of these sub-centres are
potential kiosk areas. It should be noted, however, that some centres are not yet connected
to the supply network.
8
One landlord in Sango, Webuye closes his yard tap at 08.00hrs not opening it before 17.00hrs. In
other areas the rationing system introduced by the Water Service Provider, NZOWASCO, is said to
assist landlords in the management of their yard tap.
9
A targeted metering programme is therefore likely to have an impact upon the water supply situation
of households which lack direct access to a yard tap.
10
Matete (near Webuye), for example, used to be supplied by the Webuye distribution network, but
was disconnected years ago. In response to the poor water supply situation, households and
institutions have managed to develop alternatives. Some schools have invested in rainwater
harvesting installations or hand pumps, health centres have sunk boreholes and households depend
upon springs, protected and unprotected wells. Most (if not all) sub-centres along the main tarmac
roads are supplied by the WSP (NZOWASCO). The number of domestic connections is, however,
relatively low. Residents of the sub-centres along the Webuye-Bungoma road who do consume water
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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3.5 Large Rural Centres with Urban Characteristics and Low Income Housing
A large rural centre can be defined as a large settlement located in a rural setting. The size of the
population and the population density render rural water supply solutions (hand pumps, etc.)
unsuitable.
In large rural centres the majority of the population derive their income from farming
activities, casual labourers at the farms and farming estates. Some of these centres are
unplanned and the high population density is due to the lack of land for expansion. WSS
service levels are often poor and residents often use sources such as hand pumps,
boreholes, protected and unprotected wells and springs. Some of these centres even lack
land required for the provision of basic social and economic services.
3.6 Urban IDP Camps/Settlements
In some towns such as Kitale, there are a number of old well established internally displaced
persons (IDP) settlements. These settlements are characterised by high population densities
and informal housing (houses and huts constructed with branches, plastics and other
available materials). Income levels in these settlements are usually very low and the WSS
situation is often poor.11
3.7 Peri-Urban Areas
Many peri-urban areas surrounding many Kenyan towns share the following characteristics:

Low population densities (average distances between dwellings usually range
between 30 and 200 metres).

Farming is the main economic activity.

Housing patterns: Farms, high-cost housing (villas) and compounds/plots with flats.

Residents fetch water at springs, protected wells, unprotected wells and hand
pumps.

Most residents own their house.

In most cases water is fetched free of charge.

Water supply is not really considered to be a problem.

Residents use pit latrines and VIPs.

Income levels are relatively high (when compared with informal settlements).
In many ways it would be more appropriate to label these areas as semi-rural areas.
Water kiosks should, therefore, not be considered appropriate water supply options for
many peri-urban areas. Peri-urban residents either prefer house connections (especially
from the Matisi waterworks, complained (like the residents of Bungoma) about the poor quality of their
piped water.
11
The WSTF has no data on the number of well established refugee settlements in urban centres.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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residents living in high-cost housing) or tend to be relatively satisfied with the water sources
they currently use. Kiosks would be the wrong solution for the peri-urban areas because
there would not be sufficient demand for kiosk water to render the kiosks sustainable.
Water kiosks would not contribute to the revenue base of the Company and would only
increase overall maintenance costs. It is unlikely that Water Vendors can be found who are
willing to operate isolated kiosks without customers.
4
Water supply in Low-Income Urban Areas
Residents of low income urban areas use a wide variety of sources of safe and unsafe water:

House connections linked to the distribution network.

Yard connections.

Public taps.

Communal taps managed by a committee.

Hand pumps.

Formal water kiosks.

Informal water kiosks.

Protected wells.

Unprotected wells.

Springs.

Streams.

Rain water. 12
Especially poorer households tend to fetch their water from a number of different sources.
This should be seen as a response to low household incomes, erratic supply and poor water
quality (For example, in Bungoma piped water is considered to be of poor quality). Many
households try to fetch the water they need for drinking and preparing meals from a safe
source, whereas water which is required for other usages is fetched from other sources such
as unprotected wells.
12
Rainwater harvesting is a common practice in most parts of Kenya.
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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5
Posters of Low Income Urban Areas
See also: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ubsup/ for a large collection of picturesof
urban low income areas within and outside Kenya.
(Illustrations prepared by Vincent Nyalik)
WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014
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WSTF/GIZ/UBSUP
Identifying Low Income Urban Areas
September 2014