Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Soil
Sources, Health Effects, Clean-Up Techniques and PAHs at Alameda
Point
Information and Links compiled by
Coree Brown
Elizabeth Cruz
Maria Guerrero
Collin Krauthamer
Rita Rocha
Introduction:
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of over 100
hazardous substances. They are so common in industrial processes that they are
present in at least 600 of the 1,430 National Priorities list compiled by the
Environmental Protection Agency. A PAH is formed during the incomplete
burning of garbage, petroleum products, coal, or other organics like meat and
tobacco. Volcanoes, forest fires, coal burning, and car exhaust create the
majority of PAHs, but also industrial sites where things like coking, asphalt
production, and trash incineration occur. When a group of carbon atoms fail to
break apart when burning, and bond with oxygen atoms, which would, if the
process was complete, create harmless carbon dioxide (CO2), the substance
that we naturally exhale. The structure consists of molecules containing two or
more fused six-carbon atom aromatic rings. Only hydrogen and carbon are
present in the molecules.
While there are many types of PAHs, common characteristics include
relatively low water solubility; they are in a solid form with high melting and
boiling points. PAHs degrade through chemical, photolytic and metabolic
processes associated with microorganisms.
The health effects of PAHs, as shown in mice, are birth defects, damaging
to the skin, the body’s fluids, and the ability to fight disease. Also PAHs are shown
to cause various forms of cancer in lab animals due to a form that can easily
integrate itself within and corrupt DNA. There is risk of harm in both short and
long term exposure.
Clean-up of PAHs can take place through several means, most involving
biological or organic agents. These processes can make a formerly inhospitable
and dangerous area become once again livable.
Links Cited:
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html
C.K.
Common Sources:
PAH contamination is often present in the environment. In many cases
they are found to be one of the prime chemicals that are contained in smoke
and exhaust from incomplete combustion in industrial processes. (1)
The heaviest levels of contamination commonly occur at former
gasworks sites and also industrial sites. Much of the PAH contamination comes
from traffic, oil, and coal firing. Industrial processes such as aluminum production
using old technology and iron smelting, petroleum refining, coal coking, thermal
power generation, tar paper production, and wood preservation operations
using creosote, are all examples of major human sources. All major industries
using fossil fuels in the production of goods or energy generate PAHs, and higher
concentrations are usually found near heavy industry. Forest fires, volcanic
eruptions and decaying organic matter are all natural sources of PAHs. (1)
PAHs can enter water directly from the air with dust and precipitation, or
on particles washed from the soil. PAHs dissolved in water can be processed by
plants, and are then released into soil. Then when the plants decompose or burn
the PAHs chemicals are released, leaving contamination in the air which
eventually settles into the soil, causing harm to the environment.
It is then possible for humans to inhale, ingest or absorb the pollutants
through the skin. “Exposure to PAHs usually occurs by eating foods that have
been grilled or charred meats or contaminated cereals, flour, bread and
processed or pickled foods.” (1). Even nursing infants of mothers living near
hazardous sites may be exposed to PAHs through their mother’s milk. (2)
Links Cited:
1) Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry (ATSDR).1995.
Toxicological Profile for Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Atlanta,
GA: U.S.
2) Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
http://www.propex.com/C_f_env_pah.htm
Other Resources:

POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHs)
http://www.dhfs.state.wi.us/eh/ChemFS/fs/PAH.htm

Aromatic hydrocarbon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic_ring

Newsletter from Smart Environmental detailing the sources of PAHs and
state regulations regarding the contaminants.
http://www.smartenvironmental.com/newsletters/2000/Fall2000.pdf
R.R.
Pathways of Exposure and Health Issues:
Although PAH is not very well known to the general public, everyone one
can be exposed to it through many different pathways. Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAH) are molecules made from carbon and hydrogen. PAH is
comes into being when materials are burned, these materials include wood, oil,
charcoal and tobacco. PAH is even present in some of our own household
products such as mothballs, some shampoos and skin creams. Although we
cannot see PAHs, when it is present we can be exposed to it in many different
ways, whether is be by breathing it, eating or drinking it, or touching it.
The primary means of PAH exposure is through cigarette smoking. PAH is
mostly inhaled by smokers, or those around them, because cigarettes contain
significant amount of PAH. Also car smoke, auto emission, or industrial exhaust
contains PAHs. (2).
Everyone loves a nice BBQ on a hot summer day but what most people
don’t know is that the burning charcoals give off PAH and our food is being
exposed to it, when we eat that food the PAH has now entered our bodies.
When inhaled, the dust or ashes of PAH can cause soreness to our lungs.
PAHs can also be absorbed through dermal contact. (2). If the water we
bathe in comes from a contaminated source we are exposing ourselves to
PAHs. Also if the soil we use for our gardens or even the dirt that children play in,
is contaminated we are putting ourselves in danger by coming in contact with
the PAH through our skin or foods grown in said contaminated soil. Some
shampoos, mostly those designed to fight dandruff contain certain PAH
molecules PAHs and the substance can enter through our scalp. When
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons come into contact with our skin it can
“cause redness, blistering, and peeling” (2).
Constant, long-term exposure of PAHs can cause cancer to our lungs and
problems with the reproductive and organ systems. It is common for smokers or
second hand smokers to get lung cancer because of the PAH molecule in
cigarette smoke. Industrial workers are also at a high risk for exposure. Scientists
ran test on animals that were exposed to PAH and birth defects occurred to
unborn babies. As for our organ system “a person’s lungs, liver, skin, and kidneys,
can be damaged by the exposure” (2). However, “a person’s reaction depends
on several things, including individual health, heredity, previous exposure, to
chemicals including medicines, and personal habits such as smoking and
drinking,” (2) so each individual may be affected differently.
For people who believe that they have been exposed to polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons for a long time there is now a means of testing for the
toxin. This test requires special equipment. PAH can also be found in urine and
blood. Fortunately, some PAHs will leave our bodies after a few days their
entrance through urine.
To minimize non-industrial PAH exposure, it is important to be careful about
the products you use and their ingredients, avoid cigarette smoke and
residence near highways or high traffic areas.
Works Cited:
1) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbonshttp://web99.arc.nasa.gov/~astrochm/PAHs.html
2) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbonshttp://www.dhfs.state.wi.us/eh/ChemFS/fs/PAH.htm
3) Public Health for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbonshttp://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs69.html
Other Useful Links:


Effects of prenatal airborne PAH exposure from Environmental Health
Perspectives:
http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/113-4/niehsnews.html

Columbia University study linking airborne pollutant exposure to low-birth
weights and asthma in infants: http://www.ccceh.org/pressclips/second_hand_smoke.html

Illinois Department of Public Health general fact sheet on PAHs and health
effects associated with the toxins:
http://www.idph.state.il.us/cancer/factsheets/polycyclicaromatichydroc
arbons.htm

WebMD site on lung cancer as a result of exposure to toxins
http://www.webmd.com/content/article/6/1680_51558.htm

University of Chicago School of Public Health report on PAH exposure in
Ukraine, a study of children who lived near a steel mill and coking plant.
http://www.uic.edu/sph/glakes/childrenshealth/child_pah.htm

Study of genetic mutations in foundry workers published by Oxford
University press.
http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/14/5/969

Children's Total Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from
Battelle http://www.battelle.org/environment/PAHs.stm, article discussing
research and medical testing techniques.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Breast Cancer Risk Fact sheet
provided by Spencer Institute for Cancer Research
http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/FactSheet/general/fs41.pah.cfm
M.G.
Clean-Up Technologies:
PAHs often degrade naturally in the soil. However, if the concentration is
very high (like at a current or former industrial site) and solid particles are
present, this process is impeded. This process is also a slow one because of the
structure of the molecules. PAH molecules have low levels of water solubility
(which is positive because it prevents the infiltration of ground water) and bind
easily to organic materials which makes them less susceptible to
biodegradation. PAH molecules with three or less rings degrade more readily
than molecules with four or more rings which have been found to be present
after degradation takes place. (1).
A Dutch study determined the acceptable levels of PAHs. If levels go
beyond these thresholds, remediation action is vital for the safety of humans.
Many means are available to clean up contaminated sites.
Recommended “limit values” for PAHs in soil
The values apply to the total content of the seven selected PAHs.

Soil quality criterion: 1.5 mg of PAH/kg of soil. The criterion indicates
a safe level for contact with soil (children playing, home owners).

Cut-off criterion: 15 mg of PAH/kg of soil. This criterion indicates the
level at which all contact with soil should be cut off if the land use
of the area is sensitive. (1).
Some studies have suggested that phytoremidiation can be used to clean
up contaminated sites as PAHs cling to organic matter. (2). This method of
clean-up can avoid the use of further chemicals or energy/technology intensive
processes. However, studies and experiments with this method are limited and
high-levels of effectiveness have not been proven. However, Michigan State
University has been conducting on-going tests at an auto plant to determine the
best plants for use in the phytoremediation of contaminated industrial sites. (2).
Soil washing, in which soils are agitated and cleansed with a chemical
solution are also an option. (4) In a study done by a Mexican University on sites
contaminated by gasoline and diesel, researchers mixed a solvent and the
contaminated soil and agitated the mixture. The work brought the acceptable
levels of PAHs and other contaminants into line with government standards.
However, the method is labor and cost-intensive.
Bioremediation, using microorganisms to clean the soil are also particularly
effective as these organisms feed on PAHs and cause them to quickly degrade.
This can be done by the mixing of animal manure into the contaminated soil.
Bioremediation has also proven effective in cases where 4, 5 or 6-ring PAHs are
present. (5). When plants are incorporated in these techniques, results are more
effective and efficient as they create an ideal environment for microbial
growth. Researchers are also investigating using a hydrocarbon solvent in
addition to bioremediation to improve results.
Thermal and chemical destruction of PAHs in the soil is often considered
too slow and expensive to consider for large areas of contaminated land. (5).
Because PAHs occur in nature as well as through anthropogenic activities,
it is difficult to determine the source of contaminants and thus the party
responsible for the clean-up.
Links Cited:
(1) Dutch report on the naturally degradation of PAHs present in soil and
groundwater. http://www.mst.dk/publica/projects/2001/87-7944-3672.htm
(2) Academic site about the potential for phytoremediation as a method for
removing PAHs and other contaminants. Provides ecologically sound
clean-up solution.
http://www.css.msu.edu/phytoremediation/poster2000.html
(3) Information on bioremidiation or using microorganisms to degrade
contaminants.
http://www.postech.ac.kr/ce/great/research/html/pah.html In
(4) Academic paper on the use of soil washing as a means to remove
contaminants.
http://ipec.utulsa.edu/Conf2003/Papers/iturbe_torres_flores_chavez_bauti
sta_47.pdf
(5) Australian/New Zealand Sources/remediation techniques regarding PAHs.
http://www.groundscience.com/solutionsnewsletter/solutions15/pahs.html
Other Useful Links:
 Florida Superfund Site Review in which composting applications were
used to remove PAHs from the soil. http://www.cluin.org/products/costperf/COMPOST/dubose.htm
C.B.
PAHs at Alameda Point:
Due to the long history of Naval activity and that of other industries at
Alameda Point, a high concentration of PAHs have been identified. As we know
the sources of PAHs, it is difficult to believe that PAHs are not found in
abundance at Alameda Point. The base was an aircraft maintenance and
repair center using large quantities of fuels–a large source of PAHs. One of
difficulties with clean up is the insufficient testing that has been conducted and
not sharing the information with the RAB. This had lead to a delay in clean up
which means that there are more risks for exposure and growth of sites
contaminated. The other struggle with PAHs at Alameda has been the
forthrightness of responsible parties to take on the task of cleanup.
One location, site 35, the West Housing area is home to nearly six hundred
people, of which one document states, "of which half are children" (1)
According to the same meeting minutes, inadequate sampling and testing has
occurred which has led to the delay of PAH removal. An Environmental Justice
Progress Report from January of 1999 stated that conflicting reports exist
pertaining to contamination of groundwater and soils. The areas in question
were housing and school areas.
A few years later, during a RAB meeting, discussion about PAHs arose. A
time critical removal action was in place for the West Housing area, an area
that a few years ago showed no signs, according to some reports, of PAH
contamination. Another example of how time-consuming contamination
cleanup is site 30, Miller school:
Ms. Dailey requested clarification on the delay of addressing PAHs in soil
at Site 30. Mr. Peterson also asked if the PAHs at Site 30 were discovered during
recent sampling. Mr. Johansen replied that several phases of sampling have
been conducted. The first phase conducted in 2002 did not indicate a problem,
but only a few samples were collected. During follow up PAH sampling in
October 2003 the problem was discovered.
The 1999 report found that the Navy irresponsibly dumped contaminated
radioactive waste into the San Francisco Bay. In addition, the Navy refused to
test off the Navy to evaluate whether or not the contaminated groundwater
had traveled into the surrounding community (1).
Other evidence shows that one way responsible parties are avoiding
responsibility is by "lower[ing] health protection standards in West
Alameda...where a disparate environmental health burden already persists" (1).
The effect of PAHs is far too serious to the well being of the community for it
to not be addressed with a sense of urgency.
(1) http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:Wm6TKHKCyCQJ:155.252.151.82/En
vironmental/pdf/almin040210.pdf++Alameda+RAB+PAHs&hl=en&gl=us&ct
=clnk&cd=10&ie=UTF-8
Other Useful Links:

PAH contamination/clean-up efforts at the Alameda Point Skeet Range:
http://www.battelle.org/environment/alameda.stm

To review prior Alameda Point RAB minutes, please follow this link provided
by the Navy Base Remediation and Closure site:
http://www.navybracpmo.org/bracbases/california/nas_alameda/rab_m
m.aspx
E.C.
General Links

PowerPoint outlining pathways of exposure, sources and health effects of
PAHs, provided by the Environmental Health Education Center, University
of Maryland. http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:D3u5Hrpzd0J:www.jhu.edu/hsrc/Polycyclic%2520Aromatic%2520Hydrocabons.pdf+
health+effects+PAH+exposure&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=10





Academic article from the Archives of Environmental Health dealing with
a study of PAHs’.
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0907/is_2_58/ai_106471715
List of Battelle studies on PAHs and other environmental hazards and their
impact upon children’s health and development
http://www.battelle.org/environment/Exposure-Assessment.stm
Clean Air Revival site associated with different toxins, including PAHs,
given off when materials are burnt. http://www.webcom.com/bi/healtheffects.html
The World Health Organization has an extensive fact sheet that compiles
research information from all over the world.
http://www.euro.who.int/document/aiq/5_9pah.pdf
Social Issues:
Poor and minority pregnant minorities are more likely to be exposed to
PAHs because of their residence in industrial and urban areas. A report
from Columbia University researched this from a sociological and medical
perspective.
http://www.ccceh.org/publications/perera_birthoutcomes.html
C.B.