VARIANCES IN MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY STRUCTU
MINE DRAINAGE AFFECTED STREAM GRADIENT
CENTRAL APPALACHIANS OF WEST VIRGINI
RESM 493-Spatial Analysis for Resource Management
Matthew S. Varner
Wildlife and Fisheries Department
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26505
mvarner79@yahoo.com
http://www.angelfire.com/super2/mvarner/matt.html
INTRODUCTION
Anthropocentric effects, or those caused from human resource usage, induce
multiple effects, which are often detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Studies have shown
that various human impacts cause increased sedimentation, eutrophication, increased
erosion, and increased pollutants; such as sewage (Hauer and Lamberti 1996). The same
is true with the effects of acid mine drainage or acid precipitation on benthic
macroinvertebrate communities (Peckarsky and Cook 1981, Chadwick and Canton 1984,
Roline 1988). The lotic ecosystem integrity relies upon the constant input and movement
of nutrients from the surrounding watershed biota (Kimmel 1983). Due to the intrinsic
relationship between the aquatic and terrestrial environments, any perturbation in a
watershed is likely to be reflected in the macroinvertebrate community structure (Kimmel
1983). The River Continuum Concept (RCC) serves as a template for analysis of
community structure and processes along the downstream gradient (Vannote et al. 1980).
The RCC predicts benthic community structure changes in undisturbed watersheds as the
stream size, thermal regime, and elevation fluctuate. The headwater and low order streams
of the Appalachians generally follow the River Continuum Model outlined by Vannote et
al. (1980) (Grubaugh et al. 1996). According to the RCC, headwater reaches should be
dominated by heterotrophy while downstream reaches should shift to an autotrophic
system. This shift is due to the decrease in canopy cover and the resulting increase in solar
inputs from headwaters to downstream reaches (Vannote et al 1980). Yet, studies have
shown that the farthest downstream reaches don’t always have the highest productivity
(Minshall et al 1983). Eastern study sites have conformed to the RCC in published across-
biome comparisons with western study sites (Minshall et al 1983). Functional feeding
groups assemblages served as the basis in the formation of the RCC and have become a
commonly used method of analyzing community structure patterns. Functional feeding
group guilds refer to an insect’s method of feeding or food capture method (Cummins and
Klug 1979, Cummins 1973 & 1986; Wallace et al 1992). Functional feeding groups are
affected by many physical and chemical variables, such as geographical area, underlying
geology, alkalinity, and pH (Griffith et al 1995, Kiffney and Clements 1996, Hawkins et al
1982, Merritt et al. 1991). Therefore, FFG biomass estimates are very useful in
determining various aspects of environmental perturbation. Studies have shown that
biomass and abundance estimates can vary significantly (Lugthart and Wallace 1992). To
adequately characterize benthic macroinvertebrate community structure it is necessary to
examine both insect biomass and abundance within the FFG guilds. In addition, the
patterns of benthic macroinvertebrate community structure can be more easily teased out
when the overall taxonomic composition along a stream size gradient is integrated into the
study design.
Macroinvertebrate species have been shown to have specific tolerances to pH
(Merritt et al. 1991). Thus, densities of individual species and species richness should
also be analyzed when determining the effects of stream perturbation by acid mine
drainage. According to the RCC, stream headwaters should be dominated by the shredders
and collectors guilds. The shredder guild comprises a large percentage of the overall
stream FFG composition due to the relatively high inputs of coarse particulate organic
matter (CPOM) from the dense canopy associated with headwater reaches. The large
portion of the collector guild is due to the abundance of fine and ultra fine particulate
organic matter (FPOM and DOM). CPOM is considered to be particles larger than 1 mm,
FPOM is considered to be particles between 1 mm and 0.005 mm, and DOM consists of
particles smaller than 0.005 mm (Allan 1995). By moving downstream, the grazers guild
increases and the shredder guild decreases due to the increase of solar input. Farthest
downstream the collectors guild dominants the overall FFG community structure in
response to the increased amount of (FPOM) resource availability (Vannote et al 1980).
The presence, absence, or change in specific community structure is reflective of
changes in environmental conditions. In the interest of comparison between studies, a host
of metrics, or measures, of richness, diversity, and proportion have been developed. Many
of the most widely used metrics involves the use of intolerant insects, specifically
ephemeroptera, plecoptera, and trichoptera (EPT). These insects are very sensitive to any
environmental perturbation, therefore they will be absent or in low numbers within
impacted aquatic ecosystems.
In North America, there are about 700 species of Ephemeroptera mostly restricted
to lotic habits (McCafferty 1998). Ephemeroptera exhibits the most primitive
morphological adaptations to aquatic lifestyles featuring exposed external gills (Edmunds
and Waltz 1996). These primitive morphological structures are inflexible to rapid change
and limit the distribution and tolerance of ephemeropterans to good water quality and
limited temperature ranges (Wallace and Anderson 1996). The order Plecoptera
(stoneflies) numbers some 500 species in North America (McCafferty 1998). This order is
considered important to stream ecology since Plecopterans are not only important CPOM
and FPOM processors but also predaceous (Stewart and Stark 1988). This group is also
limited to good water quality. The third member of the EPT triad is the Trichopterans, who
number some 1,200 species in North America (McCafferty 1998). This group is unique due
to their ability to built cases to reside within (Wiggins 1998). The trichopterans are diverse
Order, yet some most are temperature and water quality intolerant with a few exceptions,
particularly Hydropsychidae (Stribling et al. 1998; Wiggins 1998).
ACID MINE DRAINAGE & ACID PRECIPITATION
Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major water pollution problem in the Central
Appalachians region which encompasses a large percentage of waters located in northcentral West Virginia (Biesecker 1966). AMD is formed by sulphur, which often lies in or
around coal seams. Once the sulphur is exposed to oxygen, water, and bacteria it oxidizes
(Letterman and Mitsch 1978). The overall chemical reaction is:
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O  2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
In AMD receiving streams, which are acidic the oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric
hydroxide will be slow. Conversely, in streams of neutral to alkaline pH the oxidation is
much faster thus yielding a layer of ferric hydroxide precipitate over much of the stream‘s
strata (Letterman and Mitsch 1978). A streams ability to buffer acid, often referred to as its
Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ANC), is primarily dependent on the systems underlying
geology and soils (Resh et al. 1988, Sharp et al. 1984, Griffith 1992, Wigington, Jr. et al.
1996). In 1975, a USEPA report listed twenty potential major and minor constituents of
mine drainage (USEPA 1975). Aluminum, calcium, and sulphate were substances
concidered to be major mine drainage constituents. Minor substances listed in the report
included trace metals, such as lead, barium, and cadmium. Effects of metals on
macroinvertebrates have been shown to decrease population densities, especially in small,
high elevation streams. This response was believed to be correlated to the relatively
smaller body mass of macroinvertebrate species found at higher elevations (Kiffney and
Clements 1996). The effects of AMD are a result of a combination of factors which are
devastating to stream ecosystems by eliminating stream macroinvertebrates, fish
community, and plant life (Kimmel 1983). Kimmel (1983) categorized acid-damaged
streams into three zones—unpolluted, polluted, and recovery. The unpolluted zone is
quantified as having biologically and chemically good to excellent water quality. The
unpolluted zone also has increased habitat diversity and a benthic macroinvertebrate
community consisting of many tolerant and intolerant taxa. The polluted zone is
characterized by overall increased acidity and definitive drops in alkalinity and pH. The
presence of heavy metals and increased turbidity by suspended silt and clay particles also
distinguish this zone. Only tolerant species of plants and macroinvertebrates remain with
no fish community. The recovery zone maintains an increased rate of ferric hydroxide in
both suspension and on the stream bottom. Increased pH and depressed acidity renders
metals insoluble, yet increased shifting and filling of interstitial spaces and increased
turbidity prevents colonization of algae of macroinvertebrates. Some fish may be present,
yet stable populations are unlikely due to decreased food and habitat. This zone merges
with unpolluted downstream zones, thus allowing conditions to improve via dilution
(Kimmel 1983).
Acid precipitation is a major problem in West Virginia. The Allegheny Plateau
region of north-central West Virginia receives some of the lowest pH rainfall in the country
(Tan 1989, Wisniewski and Keitz 1983). Acidification has been shown to decrease insect
abundance and increase drift densities (Hall et al 1980). Specifically, the genera of drifting
insects responded to acidification in a tri-fold manner. First, some taxa didn’t respond
while others became more available. Further and most often observed, taxa sampled in the
drift prior to sampling increased in density after acidification. Functional feeding group
assemblages within the sampled drift exhibited meaningful results, in that the collector
guild increased 17 times and the scrapers guild increased 9 times. This may be equated to
the increased heavy metal concentrations, negatively effected physiology, or the reduction
in food quality (Hall et al. 1980). The benthic sampling revealed that macroinvertebrates
decreased in abundance in the acidified study streams. Specifically, the three most
dominant taxa, which comprised 68% of the reference streams insect community, dropped
74-94% in the acidified sites (Hall et al. 1980). Overall, acidification has been shown to
cause a downward shift in insect and plant abundances (Patrick et al 1968, Sutcliffe and
Carrick 1973, Hall et al. 1980).
Acidification can also cause habitat fragmentation, which is the isolation of habitat
resources causing a break in the aquatic biota continuum. Therefore, by isolating
downstream linkages from headwater regions and vice versa important biological processes
are eliminated, for example, particulate organic matter breakdown that occurs in headwater
reaches is diminished and upstream migration by aquatic insects for colonization is halted
by decreased habitat and water quality. By assessing these conditions and their affects on
macroinvertebrate community structure within a stream gradient continuum many
important questions can be answered:
1) What effects does stream size gradient have on benthic macroinvertebrate
community structure?
2) What variations exist in community structure between tributaries of
similar drainage area, gradient, water quality, and geology?
3) What effect does AMD and land-use have on the macroinvertebrate
community structures?
4) What taxa are indicators of changes in water chemistry from
acidification?
By using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and various metrics to analyze collected
data, we will gain a better understanding of human impacts on benthic macroinvertebrates
communities within a watershed. Specifically, GIS will be utilized to select similar link
order streams segments, basin land use percentages, mine lands, and to display collected
data in a clear and concise way. This study will help enable aquatic ecologists, biologists,
and watershed groups more easily address watershed impacts such as AMD, sewage inputs,
increased sedimentation, and intensive agricultural/forestry practices withina basin.
DATA
See Appendix and various links within the following sections
STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
Four sampling sites were established on each of three study streams. These streams
are located in the lower Cheat river basin in Preston County of north-central West Virginia.
Water quality assessments of the study streams have been conducted by Downstream
Alliance, a local watershed organization, using the Save-Our-Streams Protocol before this
study. Water quality was found to be excellent or good in Salt Lick Creek and Little Sandy
Creek, respectively, while the third stream, Muddy Creek, was considered poor throughout
a lower portion of its drainage area.
The sampling sites were chosen at similar locations along the stream gradient using
the streams downstream link order magnitude designation (Shreve 1967). For our
purposes we will use the acronym, LOM, when referring to Link Order Magnitude
designations throughout the remainder of this project. The LOM’s are located at 5th (site
1), 16th– 18th(site 2), 22nd-25th(site 3), and 28th –31st(site 4) order positions on each of the
three study streams.
Within the designated link order reach, a representative riffle habitat
was chosen and a transect was laid across the middle of the riffle zone from the upstream,
left bank. Mean values of the wetted, channel, and bank full widths will be documented.
Next, a random number table was utilized to assign five sampling sites along the transect.
Sampling was conducted at designated positions using a Hess sampler (0.10 m2) with a
trailing 250 micrometer mesh collection basket. The Hess was driven 9 cm into the
substrate; the larger substrate was hand disturbed using textured gloves then removed from
the sampler’s circle. Lastly, the remaining substrate will be agitated to the driven depth of
the Hess. A total of 60 samples (5 samples x 4 sites x 3 streams) were collected.
After the collection of a benthic sample, the contents of the mesh basket were
flushed into a sample container. The contents were preserved using 95% ethanol. The
distance from the left bank, date, study site, weather, and physicochemical data were
documented on the sample container on both the lid and on a label inside.
Physicochemical data was collected at the benthic sampling sites. Specifically, the
bottom and average current velocity, depth, and percent substrate composition will be
documented at each sampling site across the transect. Further, the pH, percent canopy
cover, and temperature was be documented at each transect site. A flow-mate current
velocity meter will be utilized to document the current velocities and a pH meter will be
used to quantify pH and temperature. To evaluate percent substrate composition a quadrat
viewing box will be utilized. A mirror will be used to estimate percent canopy cover at
each site.
The samples were washed through both a 500um and 250um sieve. The contents of
the 250um were preserved in 95% ethanol within sample bottles, which were labeled with
the collection information and sieve size. The sample that remained in the 500um sieve
was placed in multiple petri dishes. The petri dishes were sorted under a 10X microscope
and the number of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichooptera, and Non-EPT were counted.
Upon the completion of a 500um sample, the picked macroinvertebrates were preserved in
95% ethanol and labeled accordingly within a vial. Vials were labeled with the collection
information and EPT counts.
Collected data was applied to the EPT ratio metric and also integrated into ESRI
ArcView GIS for spatial analysis. The study watersheds were delineated using Hydrology
functions within ArcView Spatial Analyst and streams were overlaid using flow
accumulation grids within the map calculator of ArcView. Previously collected data on
land use from the WV GAP analysis project was utilized within GIS to summarize the land
cover within the watersheds. Summarizing the zones of Land Use within each of the
watersheds using an analysis mask did this operation. Since the WV Gap data has accuracy
limitations because of scale, mine lands were also digitized from Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quadrangles or DOQQs and summarized the Land Use data with an analysis mask.
This allowed for a more accurate representation of the mine lands percentages within the
Muddy Creek basin. Geology data and other metadata, such as AMD impacted streams,
Land Use/Land Cover 1993 GAP, WV watersheds, WV digital elevation maps, were
obtained from the Natural Resource Analysis Center, WVU. Digital Ortho Photo Quads
were obtained from the WV Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). Finally, the
sample site locations were overlaid on multiple ArcView layouts.
Results
Due to time constraints only the 500um samples were sorted to Order, therefore
data may need further analysis for a more accurate assessment of the stream conditions.
Since Little Sandy and Salt Lick macroinvertebrate abundances were found to be
statistically incomparable, only Salt Lick was used as a reference stream to identify impacts
along the downstream gradient of Muddy Creek.
Salt Lick creek was found to have the highest abundance of Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera, and Trichoptera per m2 at all the sampling sites (Table 1) and also the highest
densities of macroinvertebrates (Table 2). Yet, Salt Lick creek also had the highest overall
abundance of macroinvertebrates/ m2 compared to both Muddy Creek and Little Sandy
Creek (Table 1). Using the compositional metric, %EPT, all sites were assigned values
(Table 1). “Marginal” values were assigned to the headwater sites (LOM-5 & 16-18) of
Muddy Creek and lower two sites (LOM-22-25 & 28-31) were assigned “poor” values.
Salt Lick Creek was found to be “marginal” at LOM-5, but received an “acceptable” value
at the LOM 16-18. Salt Lick Creek’s lowest sites (LOM-22-25 & 28-31) illustrated a
similar pattern as Salt Lick Creek’s upper sites (LOM-5 & 16-18) being assigned a
marginal and acceptable value, respectively. The compositional metric, EPT %, was also
used on Little Sandy Creek. The percentage EPT was found to be “good” at the upper two
sites (LOM-5 & 16-18) and “marginal” at the lower two sites (LOM-22-25 & 28-31)
(Table 1).
The populations of macroinvertebrates/m2 were found to climax at a pH of 6.17 within
the study streams. This peak represented the densest proportion of non-EPT macroinvertebrates,
plecopterans, and trichopterans throughout the study reaches. Values above a pH of 6.17
resulted in population declines within these groups. Yet, ephemeropterans steadily increased
until pH values approached 6.28, than steadily decreased to zero at a pH of 6.44 (Figure 1).
Thereafter the overall population remained low, similar to the population densities observed
when pH values dropped below 4.0 (Figure 1).
Densities of macroinvertebrates (m2) were highest at the LOM-5 at all three study
streams. Lowest densities were seen at LOM 16-18 and further decreased in both Muddy
Creek and Little Sandy at the LOM 22-25 and LOM 28-31 sites. Yet, Salt Lick Creek’s
densities steadily increased throughout these LOM designations (Figure 2).
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSIONS
Many factors affect macroinvertebrate community composition, including substrate
composition, pH, alkalinity, canopy cover, temperature regimes, flow, and
landscape/stream interactions (McColloch 1986, Corkum 1992, Brown, A. V. and P. P.
Brussock 1991). To thoroughly assess variances in community structure it is important to
identify all samples to generic level, yet due to time constraints we could only identify
sampled macroinvertebrates to Order; specifically Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and
Plecoptera. At this degree of analysis it is difficult to make accurate predictions or
assumptions about water quality or anthropocentric effects within a watershed (Corkum
1989). The metric EPT ratio and other physiochemical and landscape data allowed only a
preliminary look at variances within the macroinvertebrate communities of Little Sandy,
Muddy, and Salt Lick Creeks.
EPT ratios are an effective metric for identifying disturbed reaches within an
aquatic ecosystem (Fore et al 1996). In perturbed aquatic ecosystems the ratio of
Ephemeropterans, Plecocopterans, and Trichopterans to the total number of insects
collected will be low (Fore et al 1996). This metric is especially effective when comparing
riffle habitats between streams since riffles provide a uniform stream microenvironment.
Riffles also often have high current velocities and shallow depths, making them more
easily sampled with a Hess sampler (Fore et al 1996). Using the EPT ratio, data showed
that Little Sandy creek was the least perturbed of the two reference streams (Table 1). Salt
Lick was found to be marginal- acceptable using the applied EPT ration throughout the
sample sites. This data may require further analysis, since multiple taxa of EPT were
counted within the Salt Lick creek samples; yet only two taxa were noted within the Little
Sandy creek sites. Further, the substrate composition within the benthos of Little Sandy
creek was found to be only marginal compared to Salt Lick creek (Figure 3-6 & 7-10).
Further, the sampled riffle habitats of Little Sandy creek were a more narrow zone of
concentration and the stream gradient was low compared to those sampled on Salt Lick
creek. In addition, Little Sandy creek benthos composition was much higher in sand:
whereas Salt Lick benthos was mostly composed of cobble and gravel (Figure 3-6 & 7-10).
McColloch (1986) showed that sandy substrate instability was a limiting factor in the
colonization of riffle habitats. Erman and Erman (1984) showed that the structure of
macroinvertebrate communities is influenced by the average size of particles within the
substrate. Substrate as a major determinant in macroinvertebrate community structure has
been show in multiple studies (Rabeni and Minschall 1979, Hildrew et al. 1980, and Reice
1980). The high composition of gravel and the subsequent high abundances of insects
within the sites of Salt Lick creek are concurrent with the results seen by Williams and
Murdie (1978) and Williams (1980). To assess the water quality within Little Sandy creek
more data will need to be collected with special emphasis on alkalinities, seasonal pH, and
substrate variability.
To analyze the impacts of AMD on macroinvertebrate community, comparisons
between substrate, land-use, similar LOM community structure, and pH were conducted.
Site 1 on both Muddy creek and Salt Lick creek had similar pH values and densities of
macroinvertebrates (Table 2). Yet, the headwater region of Muddy creek is dominated by
limestone geology whereas Salt Lick creek meanders through shale bedrock geology for
most of its length.
The LOM-5 region of both Salt Lick creek and Muddy Creek are good
indicators of water quality since the distribution of sediments in many headwater regions
are more stable over longer periods of time, except during heavy spates (Ufstrand 1967).
Site selection may have played an important role in the slightly lower abundances
found in Muddy creek versus those of Salt Lick creek. The LOM-5 site on Muddy creek
had observable erosion problems along the bank, which may have caused increased
sedimentation and a subsequent decline in abundances. More data needs collected within
these areas and a more finite scale should be applied to data already collected. Muddy
creek’s limestone bedrock should support a more diverse community than non-limestone
bedrock streams of similar size (Barton 1980); therefore Muddy creek should have high
taxa diversity versus Salt Lick creek.
Landscape variability can cause difficulty in predicting spatial distribution patterns
of stream macroinvertebrates and it may further make applicability of data to other basins
unsuccessful (Corkum 1989). Strong association between stream channel and land use
have been documented (Corkum 1992), therefore data from the WV GAP analysis project
land use/ land cover data was utilized to potentially correlate community variances in
macroinvertebrates with basin land cover percentages (Figure 15-17). Three types of forest
types dominate Salt Lick creek: Mountain-Hardwood, Oak Dominant, and Diverse
Hardwood. These three forest types composed over 85% of the watershed. Urbanization
within the basin was found to be less than 2% of the total basin area; therefore Salt Lick
was found to be an acceptable reference stream for comparison with Muddy creek based on
land use/cover. Muddy creek is less than 60% forested while mine lands and urbanization
composed over 7% of its basin area (Figure 17). Mine land, urban areas, agricultural land,
and grasslands composed over 40% of the Muddy creek basin (Figure 17).
Salt Lick creek had steady pH values throughout its length (Table 2), which reflects
in the high densities of sampled macroinvertebrates at various LOMs (Table 2). This lack
of variability within the aquatic biome and preferred microhabitat for macroinvertebrates
further increase the effectiveness of stream comparisons between Salt Lick creek and its
sister tributary Muddy creek.
Muddy creek has numerous inputs of AMD, especially within the lower half of the
basin. Site 2 (LOM~16-18) is a transitional zone, which has had some AMD inputs in the
past but is recovering. The pH in this zone is 5.79, but evidence of the past AMD impacts
is still evident from the staining of the strata by precipitate. Although this area is in the
early stages of remediation, insect life is fairly good and the EPT ratio was rated as
marginal. At the LOM sites 22-31, AMD has lowered macroinvertebrate abundances
exponentially compared to the LOM 5 site located in the headwater region. The third site,
which is LOM~22-25, has the lowest abundances of all sample sites within the Muddy
creek watershed. This may indicate a highly variable pH and AMD input within or
upstream of this reach. At the farthest downstream reach, Site 4 LOM~31, EPT’s continue
to decrease; yet non-EPT’s begin to increase (Table 2). This may be a result of less
variability within this reach and also because of increased water quality from adjoining
tributaries.
The results of this study are incomplete and need to be analyzed at a more finite
scale. More sampling seasons need to be conducted within the study basins and
identification to genus of collected macroinvertebrates is necessary to tease out the effects,
which may be ever so subtle, of changes in community structure as LOM increases and
anthropocentric affects become a factor. More comprehensive metrics need to be applied
to adequately assess conditions and impacts within the basins. Muddy Creek basin is
severely impacted by AMD, yet it shows great similarities to Salt Lick creek in the
headwater reaches. Muddy creek has the potential to be a productive as Salt Lick creek, yet
until AMD inputs are remediated macroinvertebrates will continue to struggle within its
fragmented biota.
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