Theoretical Problem Solving & Processes
In general use the term theory is often used as being equivalent to concept or hypothesis;
that is, any abstraction. In everyday language, theory may also be used as a speculation or
even a wild guess and may bear no relation to any facts. In science, the term theory is
used in a more restricted sense—it describes and explains using non-observable entities
and processes and makes testable predictions. However, there are some differences in
usage in the different sciences. For most sciences like chemistry and physics, theory
means a set of fundamental non-observable ideas that are supported indirectly by a body
of empirical knowledge. In physics the term theory is more often used to discuss the
formation of a grand, unifying idea that could bring together, for example, separate
concepts used to explain gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force fields. In most
sciences, theories are based on non-observable ideas and scientific laws are broad
statements of well-established empirical knowledge. In contrast, the term theory in
biology is sometimes used as being equivalent to the word hypothesis—a tentative
concept. In biology, a scientific law may be a well-established theory; i.e., theories
become laws. Recognizing these different approaches is an important start to sorting out
useful definitions for these terms.
As used here, laws and theories are parallel concepts used to describe, explain and
predict. An empirical way of knowing (using observables) yields empirical concepts,
such as generalizations, empirical definitions and laws. A theoretical way of knowing
(using unobservables) yields theoretical concepts, such as described below.
Classification of Theoretical Knowledge
Four levels of theoretical knowledge can be classified based on the more common
scientific use of theory and theoretical as referring to non-observables entities and
processes. Chemistry is the discipline that makes most use of (and has the most need for)
the distinction between theoretical and empirical knowledge. Parallel streams of
empirical knowledge (e.g., laws) and theoretical knowledge (e.g., theories) are common.
Type
theoretical
description
theoretical
definition
theoretical
hypothesis
theory
687320513
Meaning
a specific statement based
on a theory
a general statement that
characterizes the nature of
an entity or system in terms
of non-observables
a theoretical concept that is
tentative
a concept or set of ideas
that explains a large
number of observations in
terms of non-observables
Example
chemistry: a water molecule contains two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
chemistry: an acid donates protons in an
acid-base reaction
biology: cellular respiration as defined by
the Krebs cycle
physics: dark matter comprises most of the
mass in the universe
geology: plate tectonics (large sections of
Earth’s crust riding on a fluid-like layer)
chemistry: atomic theory; acid-base
theory; electrochemical theory
www.CRYSTALAlberta.ca
1/2
Communication of Theoretical Knowledge
As indicated above theoretical knowledge can be communicated as theoretical
descriptions, theoretical definitions, theoretical hypotheses, and theories. However, in
modern science, many theories are very abstract and much of the theoretical knowledge is
expressed, whenever possible, as abstract mathematical equations. Most humans need to
a way to visualize these theories and this is especially important in science education.
Using various devices to communicate theoretical knowledge requires some form of “representation”. The theory is re-presented in a different way—a way that usually
emphasizes the descriptive qualities and limits the explanatory abilities.
A model is a diagram or apparatus used to simplify the description of an abstract idea.
For example, marbles in a vibrating box could be used to describe and explain the three
states of matter. A small heavy ball creating a depression in a stretched rubber sheet can
be used to visualize the distortion of space around a star in Einstein’s theory of relativity.
The main advantage of a model is that it communicates (usually in a visual way) an
important idea; the main disadvantage is that it oversimplifies and limits the theory.
Two language devices (figures of speech) are also commonly used to help communicate
theoretical knowledge. An analogy is a comparison to something more familiar. For
example, atoms compared to billiard balls, and enzyme action compared to a lock and
key. A metaphor is a more complex figure of speech in which one thing is spoken of as
if it were another; for example, life is a roller coaster, full of ups and downs. The image
generated is often vivid and insightful, but not necessarily logical. A prevailing metaphor
in science is that of a physical mechanism; for example, the universe as a mechanical
system and the human body as a machine. Some people argue that all or most of science
is a metaphor; we think and learn using metaphors.
Theoretical Problem Solving
Scientists are sometimes classified as empiricists and theoreticians. Empirical scientists
specialize in laboratory or field work. They gather evidence to test hypotheses and
predictions. Theoretical scientists specialize in describing and explaining natural
phenomena in terms of unobservable entities and processes. They also make predictions
based upon their theories, although they might depend on the empiricists to complete the
tests for them.
Theoretical problem solving primarily involves working with abstract ideas about nonobservable entities and processes. For example, a theoretician might try to create a
theoretical description and explanation for the rusting of iron or for cellular respiration.
They might look at the evidence gathered in the laboratory and try to envisage the
transfer process of electrons between the entities involved. The theory that is created is
tested by its descriptive power, its explanatory power, and its predictive power. Note that
it is easier to describe than explain and it is generally easier to explain than predict. The
evaluation of the theory involves these three tests. If it passes these tests, then it is
accepted (tentatively) in the scientific community. An example is that the Bohr atomic
theory is able to describe a sodium atom, to explain the rapid reaction of sodium with
chlorine, and to predict a less impressive reaction between sodium and iodine.
687320513
www.CRYSTALAlberta.ca
2/2