KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 1 (1 of 3)
Types of Plot
Plot – the structure of the action of a story. In conventional stories, plot has three main parts:
rising action, climax, and falling action leading to a resolution or denouement (Harris &
Hodges, 1995, p. 189).
“Plot is a sequence of events that occurs to characters in situations in the beginning, middle, and
end of a story” (Hancock, 2004, p. 136).
There are four primary types of plots (modified from Anderson, 2006, & Lukens, 2007):
1. Linear – plot is constructed logically and not by coincidence. There are three major
parts to a linear plot:
 Beginning – the characters and setting are introduced, and the central
conflict/problem of the story is revealed. Usually the main character sets a goal
to overcome the conflict/problem, or s/he may set a goal that creates a
conflict/problem.
 Middle – the main character participates in a series of events or attempts to reach
the goal that leads to a resolution of the conflict/problem.
 End – the main character may or may not reach his/her goal, thus resolving the
conflict/problem. The linear plot is common in folktales, such as Goldilocks and
the Three Bears, as well as realistic fiction (e.g., Make Way for Duckling,
McCloskey, 1941) and fantasy (e.g., The Rainbow Fish, Pfister, 1992).
Teachers should select books with linear plots when teaching narrative comprehension.
Linear plots usually include several episodes within the story. A good source for these
types of stories is found in many folktales and fictional books, such as the ones mentioned
above.
2. Episodic – “one incident or short episode is linked to another by common characters or a
unified theme” (Lukens, 2007, p. 121).
 An episodic plot features distinct episodes that are related to one another but that
also can be read individually, almost as stories by themselves (e.g., the chapters
in Frog and Toad All Year, Lobel, 1976). The chapters of short books with
episodic structure like Frog and Toad can be used to teach narrative structure as
one would with a picture storybook, because each chapter functions like a story
that can stand alone.
 Most novels involve more complex plots, in which the story builds on itself, so
that each episode evolves out of a previous one and produces another one (e.g.,
Beverly Cleary books, such as Ramona the Brave, and Judy Blume books, such
as Superfudge, etc.).
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
1
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 1 (2 of 3)
Types of Plot (cont.)
Picture books, not novels, should be used to provide explicit instruction in narrative/story
structure. Novels are very complex stories that have many linear and episodic plots embedded in
them. However, novels may be used to provide opportunities for students to apply, analyze, and
synthesize what they know about narrative/story structure in order to make predictions,
inferences, and draw conclusions about these complex plots.
Teachers should provide considerable modeling and guided practice in identifying
narrative/story structure and the causal links between events with picture books that have
simpler linear plots. (See note on previous page after linear plot in bold.)
3. Cumulative – plots with lots of repetition of phrases, sentences, or events with one
new aspect added with each repetition. The Gingerbread Man and The Great, Big,
Enormous Turnip are examples of cumulative plots.
4. Circular – the characters in the story end up in the same place that they were at the
beginning of the story. Examples of circular stories are If You Give a Mouse a
Cookie (Numeroff, 1985) and Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak, 1963).
Stories with cumulative or circular plots should NOT be used to teach the comprehension of
narrative text, because they do not provide a complete narrative/story structure.
Conflict is the interaction of plot and character or the opposition of two forces. There are four
primary types of conflict:
1.
2.
3.
4.
character against self
character against another character
character against society
character against nature
Lukens (2007) defines the following terms associated with narrative text:
Climax - action that precipitates resolution of conflict (p. 353)
Resolution - falling action following climax (p. 357)
Theme - statement giving the underlying truth about people, society, or the human condition,
either explicitly or implicitly (p. 358)
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
2
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 1 (3 of 3)
Literary Terminology and Reading Research: A Comparison
Plot: “a sequence of events that occurs to characters in situations in the beginning, middle, and
end of a story” (Hancock, 2004, p. 136).
Literary Terminology
Reading-Comprehension
Research Terminology
Beginning
Beginning
setting
characters
setting
characters
Plot:
initiating event
conflict/problem
Plot:
initiating event
character goal(s)
conflict/problem
Middle
Middle
Plot:
turning point
crisis
rising action
climax – action that precipitates resolution of
conflict (Lukens, 2007)
subplot
parallel episodes
End
Plot:
resolution – falling action following climax
(Lukens, 2007)
denouement
falling action
ending
Plot:
character goal(s)
character attempts to reach his/her goal(s)
Note: The character may initially fail to meet
his goal (failed outcome), and thus may drop
the goal and move to the end of the story; try
to achieve the original goal with different
attempts; or begin a new episode with a new
goal. Once the goal is reached, the plot moves
to the end of the story.
End
Plot:
outcome
ending
Theme: Statement giving the underlying truth about people, society, or the human condition,
either explicitly or implicitly (Lukens, 2007).
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
3
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 2 (1 of 4)
Narrative-Text
Story-Grammar Components
Story-grammar components, based on the research of Mandler and Johnson (1977), Rumelhart
(1977), Thorndyke (1977), Stein and Glenn (1979), and Trabasso and van den Broek (1985),
define the typical structure of a fiction story. In studies of retellings, story events were found to
occur in a similar pattern from story to story. The elements of story grammar are listed and
defined below.
SETTING: The setting provides the reader with relevant information about the location and
time of the story. The author usually gives a description of the time and place. A discussion of
the setting is important to prepare the readers for the story.
CHARACTERS: At the beginning of the story, along with the setting, the main characters are
introduced. The goals of the main characters drive the plot of the story (i.e., goals,
attempt/actions, and outcomes).
INITIATING EVENT: The transition from the initial setting occurs when an initiating event
causes a change of state in the story. If the initiating event did not occur, the story would stay in
the setting. Each narrative contains an initiating event.
The goal, attempt, and outcome sequences form the episodes of the story.
GOAL: The goal is a reaction of the main character to the initiating event. The goal is what the
character desires in the story. A character’s goal may be unstated. Also, more than one character
will have goals in the story. The conflict between characters’ goals is what gets the story
moving.
ATTEMPTS/ACTIONS: Each character will complete a series of attempts to reach his/her
goal. The actions in the story are referred to as attempts.
OUTCOMES: Following the attempts, an outcome will occur. The outcome signals if the
character has reached his/her goal. If goal success is reached, the story will end or a new goal
will be set. If the outcome signals goal failure, the character may abandon the goal, make
additional attempts to reach the goal, or create a new goal.
STORY ENDING: Students may confuse the outcome with the story ending. The ending
follows the goals, attempts, and outcomes and brings closure to the story. This category may be
added at the end to separate the outcome and story ending.
(Coffman & Oliver, 1997)
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
4
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 2 (2 of 4)
Goal-Structure Mapping
Simple graphic organizers to help students map stories using causal chains or the goal-attemptsand-outcome format were developed by Sundbye (1998) and Coffman and Oliver (1997). This
graphic organizer was designed to help teachers show students how to make connections
between events in a narrative in order to focus attention on both the pattern of story events and
the relationships that connect the story events to one another. There is research evidence that
teaching students about these story parts (i.e., goals, attempts, and outcomes) can improve
reading comprehension (Idol, 1987; Spiegel & Fitzgerald, 1986).
It is important to make sure that the graphic organizers that you choose represent the research
that has been done with story grammar. Sometimes you will find graphic organizers that may
not include character goals or present the elements of narrative as separate entities rather than in
cohesive representation of the story. One should look carefully at the graphic organizer that
s/he has decided to use to make sure that it is consistent with narrative-text research. In
addition, teachers in a school should make an effort to ensure that the terminology used for
narrative-text structure is consistent from classroom to classroom and grade level to grade level.
Tips for Constructing Goal-Structure Maps

Try it! Don’t be afraid – you can do it!

Map the stories yourself or meet with colleagues to discuss the stories and create models
of maps before teaching a story to students.

Develop the map using the sequence of the story.

Talk through the setting and initiating event with students.

Identify major and minor characters. Major characters are linked to each other through
causal relationships and the causal chains or links that occur between the characters’
goals, attempts, and outcomes. Major characters have a goal, make attempts to reach the
goal, and have an outcome that determines goal failure or goal success. Therefore, we
represent these transitions in the narrative with the colors of the stoplight: the goal
(green), the attempts (yellow), and the outcome (red). Minor characters do not have
goals in the story.

Start with the setting, initiating event, and the character. Remember that the maps
should be created interactively between characters as their attempts and outcomes appear
in the story, not linear with the focus on one character at a time.

Encourage students to question the thinking that goes into constructing the map. If the
class is having difficulty deciding what to put on the map, students should take a vote
and go with the consensus. The teacher should ask students to look back in the text to
defend their reasoning.
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
5
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 2 (3 of 4)
Symbols for Goal-Structure Mapping
I.E.
Initiating Event
Main Character
Relationships
Goals
Attempts to reach goal
Outcome
Ending
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
6
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 2 (4 of 4)
Narrative Text
Story-Focused Questions for Text Analysis
Title of Book
Setting: What is the setting of the story?
Time:
Place:
Characters: List all of the characters that appear in the story.
As you look at the list of characters, determine whether the characters have a goal and attempt
to reach the goal. Make sure to include all characters that are needed to make the story unfold
and come to life.
Initiating Event: What is the initiating event?
Goal: What is the goal of
?
(You will need to consider this for each main character.)
Attempts/Action: What did
do to reach his/her goal?
(You will need to consider this for each main character.)
Outcome: Did
reach his/her goal? If yes, how was this accomplished?
(You will need to consider this for each main character.)
Story Ending: How does the story end?
After you have finished analyzing the story ask yourself,
“Have I included all of the characters that influence the events in the story?”
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
7
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 3 (1 of 1)
Goal Structure Map
Little Red: A Fizzingly Good Yarn
I.E.: Little Red leaves the Inn for Grandma’s house
enemies
Little Red (Thomas)
Wolf
To have
Grandma
for a tasty
snack
Visit Grandma
and bring her
treats
Stole Little
Red’s coat
Skipped along
path through
the woods to
Grandma’s
house
Went to
Grandma’s
house
Not to get
eaten by the
wolf
Stopped,
exclaiming
he would
pick
apples for
Grandma
To have
Little Red
for a tasty
snack
Dressed
up like
Grandma
Told Little
Red he
wanted to
eat him
Swallowed
Grandma
Offered Wolf
ginger ale
No
Threw empty
ginger-ale keg
at the Wolf
No
Yes
Offered Wolf
all the ginger
ale he wanted
Story Ending: “So, from then on, each
week on his way to Grandma’s, Little
Red left a keg of ginger ale in the forest
for the wolf, who drank it down
eagerly, in spite of its embarrassing
aftereffects!” (p.31)
Yes
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
8
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 4 (1 of 1)
Goal-Structure Mapping
General Teaching Sequence
1. (What) Tell the students that you are going to show them how to put the information
from a story into a map. Explain that this type of map shows the names of main
characters, the characters’ goals, and how the characters try to reach their goals.
2. (How) Model for the students how to complete each part of the Goal-Structure Map. For
younger students, model and practice only one portion of the map at a time. It may be
helpful to demonstrate to younger students a map of a real-life incident (i.e., the student
wanted a new video game, saved her allowance, bought the game) to get a better idea of
how the map works. The parts of the Goal-Structure Map should be reviewed often.








Identify the initiating event. The transition from the initial setting occurs when an
initiating event causes a change in the story. If the initiating event did not occur, the
story would stay in the setting.
Determine the main characters. The names of the main characters go on the top lines
in a story map. Main characters are going to show up throughout the story.
Identify the relationships among the characters. A dashed line is drawn between the
characters with a word written on it that describes the relationship (i.e., friends,
neighbors, sister). Keep in mind that the relationship may need to be inferred.
Identify the goal or goals of the main characters. The goals of the main characters are
placed in the ovals (circles). Remember that the goals are what the main characters
want or desire to reach in the story.
Discuss the narrative with the students, identifying and adding the attempts to the
Goal-Structure Map as they happened in the story. The attempts are written in the
rectangles. There may be one attempt or several attempts to reach the goal. Be
careful not to include minor details. The point is to map the most important parts of
the story.
Make a statement about the outcome of the attempts to reach the goal. Ask the
students if the attempt produced what was wanted. Outcomes may be “yes,” “no,” or
even “yes/no” if there were elements of both success and failure to the outcome.
“No” outcomes can lead to new goals. Outcomes are written in the triangles.
Draw cause-effect lines to connect one episode of the story to another. Help the
students link the events together (causal chain) by asking “why” questions about
elements in the story. For example, “Why did the girl save her allowance?”
Practice with simple stories.
3. (Why) Tell the students that learning how to make goal-structure maps can help them
think about and understand a story. Explain that maps may be constructed during reading
or after reading.
Adapted from Coffman and Oliver (1997); Spiegel and Fitzgerald (1986); Sundbye (1998); Trabasso, van den
Broek and Liu (1988).
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
9
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (1 of 14)
Narrative-Text Cue Cards
Narrative text tells a story. Cue cards can be used selectively during teacher read alouds. Later,
as students begin to read independently or with a partner, they can use the cards to help them
understand narrative texts. (Students orally respond to the questions.)
Set 1 (Green Cards)—Use before reading.

Before reading a text, place the green cards in a pocket chart. (Students place them
on their desks.)

Touch each green card, read it, and ask students to respond.
Set 2 (Yellow Cards)—Use during reading.

Place the yellow cards in the pocket chart. (Students place them on their desks.)

Review the significance of each card.

Begin reading the narrative text.

Stop periodically. Touch each yellow card, read it, and ask students to respond.

Move the card from the left side of the pocket chart to the right side as each
question is answered. (Students move the cards on their desks.)

When all the cards have been moved from the left to the right side, students know
they have found answers to all the questions.
Set 3 (Red Cards)—Use after reading the entire selection.

Place the red cards in the pocket chart.

Touch each red card, read it, and ask students to respond.
Cards for students to use at their desks are included in the handout.
Adapted from material developed by Neuhaus Education Center (1998).
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
10
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (2 of 14)
Narrative Cards Discussion
Green Cards (Before Reading)
Card 1
What does the title tell me about this story?
Card 2
What do the pictures tell me?
Card 3
What do I already know about …?
(Activate prior knowledge on the topic.)
If reading chapter books, review what has happened.)
Yellow Cards (During Reading)
Card 4
Where does the story take place?
(Tell the setting of the story.)
Card 5
Who are the main characters in the story?
(Tell who the story is about.)
Card 6
What happened to make the story start?
(The initiating event that gets the story moving.)
Card 7
What is the goal of each of the main characters?
(The goal is the reaction of the main character to the initiating event. A
character’s goal may be unstated. Also, more than one character goal will occur
in the story. The clash between characters’ goals is the heart or “conflict” of the
story.)
Card 8
What attempts or actions did the character(s) take to reach his/her goal?
(Explain the series of actions that the character(s) attempted to reach his/her
goal.)
Card 9
What do I think will happen next?
(Make predictions, and ask students to explain their reasoning.)
Red Cards (After Reading)
Card 10
What was the outcome of the story?
(Did the character(s) reach his/her goal? Why do you say so?)
Card 11
How did the story end?
(Tell how the story ended, if that is different from the outcome of the
character(s) reaching his/her goal.)
Card 12
Why did …?
(Use “Why” questions that ask students to infer meaning of the story around the
goals, attempts, and outcome of the character(s).)
Card 13
What are some ways to extend this text?
(Discussion, story mapping, character web, Readers Theater, etc.)
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
11
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (3 of 14)
What does the title tell me
about the story?
#1
What do the pictures tell me?
#2
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
12
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (4 of 14)
What do I already know
about . . .?
#3
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
13
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (5 of 14)
Where does the story take
place?
#4
Who are the main characters
in the story?
#5
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
14
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (6 of 14)
What happened to make the
story start?
#6
What is the goal of each of
the main characters?
#7
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
15
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (7 of 14)
What attempts or actions did
the character(s) take to reach
his/her goal?
#8
What do I think will happen
next?
#9
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
16
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (8 of 14)
What was the outcome of the
story?
#10
How did the story end?
#11
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
17
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (9 of 14)
Why did . . .?
#12
What are some ways to
extend this text?
#13
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
18
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (10 of 14)
What does the title tell me
about the story?
What do the pictures tell me?
1
2
What do I already know
about…?
3
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
19
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (11 of 14)
Where does the story
take place?
Who are the main characters
in the story?
4
What happened to make the
story start?
5
What is the goal of each of
the main characters?
6
7
What attempts or actions did
the main character(s) take to What do I think will happen
reach his/her goal?
next?
8
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
9
20
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (12 of 14)
What was the outcome of the
story?
How did the story end?
10
Why did …?
11
What are some ways to
extend this text?
12
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
13
21
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (13 of 14)
Narrative Cue Cards
Application to Narrative Text
Book: Little Red: A Fizzingly Good Yarn (Roberts, 2005)
Narrative Cards Discussion
Green Cards (Before Reading)
Card 1
What does the title tell me about this story?
Open-ended question.
Card 2
What do the pictures tell me?
Open-ended question. Teachers may point out specific parts of the
illustrations. For example, “Why is Thomas called ‘Little Red?’”
Card 3
What do I already know about …?
What do you already know about the story, Little Red Riding Hood?
What do you know about inns? Tell me about ginger ale.
Yellow Cards (During Reading)
Some answers will not be obvious until the reading is finished. To get to the answers,
teachers may ask questions such as “Why did Little Red stop to pick red apples?” or
“Why did the Wolf put on Little Red’s coat?”
Card 4
Where does the story take place?
There are several settings: the Inn, the forest, and Grandma’s house. Most
of the action takes place at Grandma’s house.
Card 5
Who are the main characters in the story?
The main characters are Little Red (Thomas) and the Wolf. Grandma is a
secondary character.
Card 6
What happened to make the story start (i.e., the initiating event)?
Little Red starts down the path to Grandma’s house.
Card 7
What is the goal of each of the main characters?
Little Red: Little Red has two goals. The first goal is to visit Grandma.
The second goal occurs after Little Red gets to Grandma’s house. The goal
is to not get eaten by the Wolf.
Wolf: The Wolf has two goals. The first goal is to have Little Red for a
tasty snack. When the Wolf finds out that Little Red is going to visit
Grandma, he has a second goal, to have Grandma for a tasty snack.
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
22
KU SOE: Strategies for Educational Improvement
June 11, 2010
Handout 5 (14 of 14)
Card 8
What attempts or actions did the character(s) take to reach his/her
goal?
Little Red: To reach Little Red’s first goal: (1) Skips along the path to
Grandma’s house. (2) Stops to pick apples for Grandma.
To reach his second goal: (1) Offers the Wolf ginger ale. (2) Throws the
empty ginger-ale keg at the Wolf. (3) Offers the Wolf all the ginger ale he
wants.
Wolf: to reach the Wolf’s first goal: (1) Dresses up like Grandma. (2)
Tells Little Red he wants to eat him.
To reach his second goal: (1) Steals Little Red’s coat. (2) Goes to
Grandma’s house. (3) Swallows grandma.
Card 9
What do I think will happen next?
Open-ended responses. Predictions should be based on information from
the text.
Red Cards (After Reading)
Card 10
What was the outcome of the story?
Little Red reached both of his goals; he got to visit Grandma, and he was
not eaten by the Wolf.
The Wolf did not reach either of his goals; he did not have Little Red for a
tasty snack, nor did he get to keep Grandma as a tasty snack.
Card 11
How did the story end?
The story ends when Little Red offers a deal to the Wolf. If the Wolf
promises to never eat anyone, then Little Red will provide the Wolf with a
tasty snack of ginger ale. The Wolf accepts the offer.
Card 12
Why did …?
Why did Little Red stop to pick apples? Why did the Wolf steal Little
Red’s coat? Why did Little Red offer ginger ale to the Wolf? Why did
Little Red throw the ginger-ale keg at the Wolf?
Card 13
What are some ways to extend this text?
Story-comparison chart, dramatize or write another version of the story,
literature circles.
©2010 Kansas Reading Academy
23