Literature Review
EDF 515
May 8, 1997
Throughout the history of special education the overrepresentation of minorities in
disability classes has been a problem. Dunn (1968) first brought this problem to light during
the civil tights movement. He forced special educators to examine their placement practices.
Currently, a number of educators and parents worry that the placement of minorities in
special education may constitute a new version of segregation and discrimination
(Williams-Dixon, 1991). Special education students are in greater jeopardy of dropping
out of school and facing unemployment (Schwartz, 1990). Grant (1992) argues that the
placement of black children in special classes may prevent them from earning regular
high school diplomas and going on to higher education. As a result, they may have to
accept the most minimal or low paying jobs
Test Bus
Intelligence tests ban long been blamed for the excessive number of minority children
in special education classes and the denial of educational opportunity (Gmnt 1992). It has
been proven that IQ tests often underestimate black and minority students abilities. The
difference may be as high as fifteen points which would prevent a borderline normal child
from being labeled mentally retarded. Placement in mentally retarded classes may be too
dependent IQ tests which have been constructed for use with middle class whites
(Williams-Dixon, 1991).
Although the diagnosis of mental retardation ought to be based on the consideration of
both intelligence level and adaptive behaior, there is still an over
reliance on IQ scores. Consequently, it has been suggested that excessive numbers of
minority students are referred and placed in mental retardation classrooms because of the
subjective nature of intelligence test constructs and the scarcity of culturally sensitive
means to assess them (Artiles & Trait, 1994).
Faulty Referral and Screening Procedures
Studies have reported that teacher prejudices, racial bias, expectations, and differential
treatment influence referral decisions of minority students. Once a child has been
referred, the chances that he will be placed increase significantly. Minority students may
be referred because the definition and petition of deviant behavior might differ according
to the culture in which it is obsetwd. Teachers may also perceive student behaviors
differently depending on the students ethnicity. The referral and assesment practices used
with minority students have been criticized because they are based on a “deficit view” of
children’s disorders disregarding the potential interactions with contextual and
sociocuhural variables (Artiles & Trent, 1994).
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Studies have indicated that children from lower socioeconomic groups have lower IQ
scores and perfonn generally on a lower level in schoo4 (Williams-Dixon, 1991).
Seventy-five percent of mild mental retardation is linked to various SES environmental
contingencies (Artilcs & Treat, 1994). A family’s SES may impact child-rearing practices
and parents for reasons of work or often lack of education are unable to encourage and
assist a child in school. The marital relationship of the parents may be a significant factor
affecting development. The stress factor is high in lower SES groups. As a result, the divorce
rate is proportionately higher for blacks and other minorities (Williams-Dixon, 1991).
Also, medical or health problems associated with lower SES groups may affect
mental functionings. Conditions such as rubella, pregnancy complications, and PKU
(Phenylketonuria) may cause delayed mental functioning and retardation in children. Lack
of prenatal care may also contribute to poor school performance. Many pregnant mothers
in lower SES groups receive no physical care during the first trimester of pregnancy.
Some handicapped children would not be impaired had their mothers had one physical
exam during the first trimester which could have detected potential problems (WilliamsDixon, 1991).
Court Intervention
Numerous court cases involving special education placement have produced mixed
results. A case in California determined that IQ tests used for placement were racially
biased. In contrast, a Georgia court ruled that overrepresentation of black students in
special education programs for the mildly retarded did not constitute discrimination
(Williams-Dixon, 1991).
Recent litigation has caused educators to focus more closely on the manner in which
services ar provided to handicapped persons. Judicial decisions involving placement test
bias have influenced legislative initiatives and professional practices in improving
educational opportunities for minorities and handicapped (Schwartz
1990).
Proposed Special Education Refonn
There is no clear solution to the overrepresentation problem in special education.
However, several factors have been suggested to be incorporated into a reform plan First,
educators should map out how the etlmo-cultural and social-psychological
characteristics of students with disabilities affect learning. Next, a culturally sound
research agenda should be developed. Such an agenda would encompass the following
principles: 1) individuals live in systems the child’s whole system should be examined
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instead of one paft; 2) behaviors and thoughts are mediated individuals actions and
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thoughts aremediatcd by beliefs, values, and perceptions thathave been learned or
acquired through cultural transmission or social learning; and 3) focus would include
several ecological domains such as community, home, educational system, school, and
classroom (AttIcs & Treat, 1994).
Attics and Treat (1994) also suggest that the special education system should develop
a reform system that includes prevention, functional assessment, culturally sensitive
instruction based on critical reflection, and redefinition of home-school-community
relations. A preventive model based on ecological and interracial frameworks could be
useful in implementing academic and social interventions in schools, homes, and
communities. Functional assessment includes preferred interventions, direct observation,
and curriculum-based measurement.
Also, educators must be trained to use a variety of instructional models that have
improved the academic performance of at risk groups. Researchers should redefine the
link between schools, homes, and communities through the implementation of a
community multidisciplinary approach.
A “tolerance” approach to teaching has also been suggested as another mean to correct
the overrepresentation problem in schools. In a tolerance approach, instructional effort is
intentionally an abstraction of the complex ways individual teachers apply their
motivation, knowledge, skills, and experience to devise learning activities suitable for
different students. The capacity to exert effective effort and be effective with a broader
range of different learners can be increased for the school as a whole by providing the
resources either to the classroom or some other location in the school. According to this
approach, students with disabilities integrated into the general classroom increase their
abilities (Semmel, Goiter, et.aL, 1994).
Most importantly teacher training programs can help reduce the disparity between the
student population and teaching force. Teacher training programs should include an
emphasis on teacher decision making and problem solving processes in order to avoid the
adoption of a prescriptive stereotypical model of instruction and a process oriented
component so that teachers can deal with issues of diversity at the personal level (Artiles
& Trent, 1994).
In conclusion, the overrepresentation of minorities has been a persistent problem in
special education. It has been suggested that placement in special education has brought
about a new form of segregation denying minority students of educational
opportunity. Poor referral procedures and an over reliance on intelligence test scores have
been cited as possible causes of the problem. Low socioeconomic status and cultural
differences may also be contributing factors. Developing a reform plan for special
education is a complicated issue. In general, researchers have suggested that educators
address individual differences in students and develop objective referral and screening
procedures for special education.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Artiles,A.. & Trent,S. (1994) Overrepresentation of minority students in special
education: a continuing debate. The Journal of Special Education. 27, 410-37.
Dunn, L.M. (1968) Special education for the mildly retarded: Is much of it justifiable?
Exceptional Children. 23, 5-21.
Grant, Patrick (1992) Using special education to destroy black boys. N.cgr_~ ‘-~
Educational Review. 43, 17-21.
SemmetM. (Ierber,M. & Macmillan, D.(1994). Twenty-five years after Dunn’s article: a
legacy of policy analysis research in special education. The Journal at Special
Education. 27, 48 1-95.
Schwartz, L. (1990). Special education tracks of inequality. Paoer presented at the t—
Council for Exceptional Children Symposia on Cultural Diverse Exceptional Children
Albuquerque. New Mexico.
Williams-Dixon, Roslin (1991). Disproportionate mental retardation placement of
minority students. Reading improvement. 28, 133-31.