Gregory’s Pediatric Anesthesia Chapter 24 - References 1. Weatherford DA, Stephenson JE, Taylor SM et al. Thoracoscopy versus thoracotomy: indications and advantages. Ann Surg 1995; 61: 83–6. 2. Fox AJ, Rowbotham DJ. Recent advances: anaesthesia. BMJ 1999; 319: 557–60. 3. Lohser J. Evidence based management of one lung ventilation. Anesthesiol Clin 2008; 26: 241–72. 4. Zack MB, Pontoppidan H, Kazemi H. The effect of lateral positions on gas exchange in pulmonary disease. A prospective evaluation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1974; 110(1): 49–55. 5. Remolina C, Khan AU, Santiago TV, Edelman NH. Positional hypoxemia in unilateral lung disease. N Engl J Med 1981; 304(9): 523–5. 6. Heaf DP, Helms P, Gordon I, Turner HM. Postural effects on gas exchange in infants. N Engl J Med 1983; 308(25): 1505–8. 7. Davies H, Kitchman R, Gordon I, Helms P. Regional ventilation in infancy. Reversal of adult pattern. N Engl J Med 1985: 313(26): 1626–8. 8. Mansell A, Bryan C, Levison H. Airway closure in children. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33: 711–14. 9. Conacher ID. 2000 – Time to apply Occam’s razor to failure of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction during one lung ventilation. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84(4): 434–6. 10. Dulu A, Pastores SM, Park B et al. Prevalence and mortality of acute lung injury and ARDS after lung resection. Chest 2006; 130: 73–8. 11. Grichnik KP, Shaw A. Update on one-lung ventilation: the use of continuous positive airway pressure ventilation and positive end-expiratory pressure ventilation – clinical application. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2009; 22: 23–30. 12. Body SC, Hartigan PM. Applied thoracic physiology. In: Hemmings HC Jr, Hopkins PM (eds) Foundations of Anesthesia, Basic and Clinical Sciences. London: Harcourt, 2000, pp. 515–24. 13. Kubota H, Kubota Y, Toyoda Y et al. Selective blind endobronchial intubation in children and adults. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 587–9. 14. Hammer GB, Manos SJ, Smith BM et al. Single lung ventilation in pediatric patients. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 1503–6. 15. Choudhry DK. Single-lung ventilation in pediatric anesthesia. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2005; 23: 693–708. 16. Hammer GB. Pediatric thoracic anesthesia. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2002; 20: 153–80. 17. Peden CJ, Galizia EJ, Smith RB. Bronchial trauma secondary to intubation with a PVC double lumen tube. J R Soc Med 1992; 85: 705– 6. 18. Benumof JL, Augustine SD, Gibbons JA. Halothane and isoflurane only slightly impair arterial oxygenation during one-lung ventilation in patients undergoing thoracotomy. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 910–14. 19. Eisenkraft JB. Effects of anaesthetics on the pulmonary circulation. Br J Anaesth 1990; 65: 63–78. 20. Maguire MF, Ravenscroft A, Beggs D, Duffy JP. A questionnaire study investigating the prevalence of the neuropathic component of chronic pain after thoracic surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2006; 29: 800–5. 21. Landreneau RJ, Mack MJ, Hazelrigg SR. Prevalence of chronic pain after pulmonary resection by thoracotomy or video-assisted thoracic surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994; 107: 1079–86. 22. Furrer M, Rechsteiner R, Eigenmann V et al. Thoracotomy and thoracoscopy: postoperative pulmonary function, pain and chest wall complaints. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1997; 12: 82–7. 23. St Peter SD, Weesner KA, Sharp RJ et al. Is epidural anesthesia truly the best pain management strategy after minimally invasive pectus excavatum repair? J Pediatr Surg 2008; 43: 79–82. 24. Suresh S. Thoracic epidural catheter placement in children: are we there yet? Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004; 29(2): 83–5. 25. Richardson J, Sabanathan S, Jones J et al. A prospective, randomized comparison of preoperative and continuous balanced epidural or paravertebral bupivacaine on post-thoracotomy pain, pulmonary function and stress responses. Br J Anaesth 1999; 83(3): 387–92. 26. Dickenson AH. Spinal cord pharmacology of pain. Br J Anaesth 1995; 75: 193–200. 27. Wall PD. The prevention of post-operative pain. Pain 1988; 33: 289–90. 28. Sabanathan S, Richardson J, Mearns AJ. Management of pain in thoracic surgery. Br J Hosp Med 1993; 50: 114–20. 29. Sabanathan S, Eng AJ, Mearns AJ. Alterations in respiratory mechanics following thoracotomy. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1990; 35: 144–50. 30. Richardson J, Sabanathan S, Mearns AJ et al. Efficacy of pre-emptive analgesia and continuous extrapleural intercostal nerve block on post-thoracotomy pain and pulmonary mechanics. J Cardiovasc Surg 1994; 35: 219–28. 31. Dohi H, Naito S, Takahashi T. Age-related changes in blood pressure and duration of motor block in spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1979; 50(4): 319–23. 32. Oberlander TF, Berde CB, Lam KH et al. Infants tolerate spinal anesthesia with minimal overall autonomic changes: analysis of heart rate variability in former premature infants undergoing hernia repair. Anesth Analg 1995; 80(1): 20–7. 33. Payen D, Ecoffey C, Carli P et al. Pulsed Doppler ascending aortic, carotid, brachial, and femoral artery blood flows during caudal anesthesia in infants. Anesthesiology 1987; 67(5): 681–5. 34. Manikian B, Cantineau JP, Bertrand M et al. Improvement of diaphragmatic function by a thoracic epidural block after upper abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 1988; 68(3): 379–86. 35. Dureuil B, Viires N, Cantineau M et al. Diaphragmatic contractility after upper abdominal surgery. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61(5): 1775–80. 36. Richardson J, Sabanathan S, Shah R. Post-thoracotomy spirometric lung function: the effect of analgesia. A review. J Cardiovasc Surg 1999; 40: 445–56. 37. Polaner DM, Kimball WR, Fratacci MD et al. Thoracic epidural anesthesia increases diaphragmatic shortening after thoracotomy in the awake lamb. Anesthesiology 1993; 79(4): 808–16. 38. Bosenberg AT, Bland BA, Schulte-Steinberg O et al. Thoracic epidural anesthesia via caudal route in children. Anesthesiology 1988; 69(2): 265–9. 39. Gunter JB, Eng C. Thoracic epidural anesthesia via the caudal approach in children. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 935–8. 40. Rasch DK, Webster DE, Pollard TG, Gurkowski MA. Lumbar and thoracic epidural analgesia via the caudal approach for postoperative pain relief in infants and children. Can J Anaesth 1990; 37: 359–62. 41. Blanco D, Llamazares J, Rincon R et al. Thoracic epidural anesthesia via the lumbar approach in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 1312–16. 42. Valairucha S, Seefelder C, Houck CS. Thoracic epidural catheters placed by the caudal route in infants: the importance of radiographic confirmation. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 424–8. 43. Tsui BCH, Seal R, Koller J. Thoracic epidural catheter placement via the caudal approach in infants by using electrocardiographic guidance. Anesth Analg 2002; 95: 326–30. 44. Tsui BC, Wagner A, Cave D, Kearney R. Thoracic and lumbar epidural analgesia via the caudal approach using electrical stimulation guidance in pediatric patients: a review of 289 patients. Anesthesiology 2004; 100: 683–9. 45. Chawate MS, Jones RM, Gildersleve CD et al. Detection of epidural catheters with ultrasound in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13(8): 681–4. 46. Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A et al. Epidural catheter placement in children: comparing a novel approach using ultrasound guidance and a standard loss-of-resistance technique. Br J Anaesth 2006; 97(2): 200–7. 47. Rapp HJ, Folger A, Grau T. Ultrasound–guided catheter insertion in children. Anesth Analg 2005; 101(2): 333–9. 48. Roberts S. Ultrasonographic guidance in pediatric regional anesthesia. Part 2: Techniques. Paediatr Anaesth 206; 16(11): 1112–24. 49. Krane EJ, Dalens BJ, Murat I, Murrell D. The safety of epidurals placed during general anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23(5): 433–8. 50. Giaufre E, Dalens B, Gombert A. Epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children: a one-year prospective survey of the French-Language Society of Pediatric Anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 904–12. 51. Lönnqvist PA. Continuous paravertebral block in children: initial experience. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 607–9. 52. Eng J, Sabanathan S. Continuous paravertebral block for post-thoracotomy analgesia in children. J Pediatr Surg 1992; 27: 556–7. 53. Lönnqvist PA, Hesser U. Radiological and clinical distribution of thoracic paravertebral blockade in infants and children. Pediatr Anaesth 1993; 3: 83–7. 54. Lönnqvist PA, Olsson GL. Paravertebral vs. epidural block in children. Effects on postoperative morphine requirement after renal surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1994; 38: 346–9. 55. Lönnqvist PA. Plasma concentrations of lignocaine after thoracic paravertebral blockade in infants and children. Anaesthesia 1993; 48: 958–60. 56. Lonnqvist PA, Richardson J. Use of paravertebral blockade in children. Tech Reg Anesth Pain 1999; 3(3): 184–8. 57. Dahl JB, Rosenberg J, Lurid C, Kehlet H. Effect of thoracic epidural bupivacaine 0.75% on somatosensory evoked potentials after dermatomal stimulation. Reg Anesth 1990; 15: 73–5. 58. Dahl JB, Rosenberg J, Kehlet H. Effect of thoracic epidural etidocaine 1.5% on somatosensory evoked potentials, cortisol and glucose during cholecystectomy. Acta Anesthesiol Scand 1991; 36: 378– 82. 59. Richardson J, Jones J, Atkinson R. The effect of thoracic paravertebral blockade on somato-sensory evoked potentials. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 373–6. 60. Giesecke K, Hamberger B, Jarnberg PO et al. Paravertebral block during cholecystectomy: effects on circulatory and hormonal responses. Br J Anaesth 1998; 61: 652–6. 61. Dickenson CM. Thoracic trauma in children. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 1991; 3(3): 423–32. 62. Downs CS, Cooper MG. Continuous extrapleural intercostal nerve block for post-thoracotomy analgesia in children. Anaesth Intens Care 1997; 25: 390–7. 63. Matsota P, Livanios S, Marinopoulou E. Intercostal nerve block with bupivacaine for postthoracotomy pain relief in children. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2001; 11: 219–22. 64. Toongsuwan S, Li LC, Erickson BK, Chang HC. Formulation and characterization of bupivacaine liposheres. Int J Pharmaceut 2004; 280: 57–65. 65. Drager C, Benziger D, Gao F, Berde CB. Prolonged intercostal nerve blockade in sheep using controlled-release of bupivacaine and dexamethazone from polymer microspheres. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 969–79. 66. Bricker SRW, Telford RJ, Bokker PD. Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine following intraoperative intercostals nerve block in neonates and in infants aged less than 6 months. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 942–7. 67. Rothstein P, Arthur GR , Feldman HS et al. Bupivacaine for intercostals nerve blocks in children: blood concentrations and pharmacokinetics. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 625–32 68. Karmakar MM, Critchley L. Continuous extrapleural intercostal nerve block for post thoracotomy analgesia in children. Anaesth Intens Care 1998; 26: 115. 69. Davies RG, Myles S, Graham JM. A comparison of the analgesic efficacy and side-effects of paravertebral vs. epidural blockade for thoracotomy – a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96(4): 418–26. 70. Joshi GP, Bonnet F et al. A systematic review of randomized trials evaluating regional techniques for post-thoracotomy analgesia. Anesth Analg 2008; 107(30): 1026–40. 71. Jaureguizar E, Vasquez J, Murcia J et al. Morbid musculoskeletal sequelae of thoracotomy for tracheoesophageal fistula. J Ped Surg 1985; 20: 511–14. 72. Rodgers BM, Talbert JL. Thoracoscopy for diagnosis of intrathoracic lesions in children. J Pediatr Surg 1976; 11(5): 703–8. 73. Rothenberg SS. Thoracoscopy in infants and children: Semin Pediatr Surg 1994; 3: 277. 74. Tobias JD. Thoracoscopy in the pediatric patient. Anesth Clin North Am 2001; 19(1): 173–86. 75. Yacoub OF, Cardona WE, Coveler LA et al. Carbon dioxide embolism during laparoscopy. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 533. 76. Moskop RJ Jr, Lubarsky DA. Carbon dioxide embolism during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. South Med J 1994; 87: 414. 77. Thurlbeck WM. Postnatal human lung growth. Thorax 1982; 37: 564–71. 78. Dunnill M. Postnatal growth of the lung. Thorax 1962; 17: 329–33. 79. McBride JT, Wohl ME, Strieder DJ et al. Lung growth and airway function after lobectomy in infancy for congenital lobar emphysema. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 962–70. 80. Cournard A. A follow-up study of the cardiopulmonary function in four young individuals after pneumonectomy. J Thorac Surg 1947; 16: 30–49. 81. Laros CD, Westermann CJ. Dilatation, compensatory growth, or both after pneumonectomy during childhood and adolescence. A thirty-year follow-up study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1987; 93: 570–6. 82. Grillo HC, Shepard JA, Mathisen DJ et al. Postpneumonectomy syndrome: diagnosis, management, and results. Ann Thorac Surg 1992; 54: 638–50. 83. Quillin SP, Shackelford GD. Postpneumonectomy syndrome after left lung resection. Radiology 1991; 179: 100–2. 84. Shamji FM, Deslauriers J, Daniel TM et al. Postpneumonectomy syndrome with an ipsilateral aortic arch after left pneumonectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 62: 1627–31. 85. Kreisel D, Krupnick AS, Huddleston CB. Outcomes and late complications after pulmonary resections in the pediatric population. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004; 16: 215–19. 86. Wasserman K, Jamplis RW, Lash H et al. Post-pneumonectomy syndrome. Surgical correction using silastic implants. Chest 1979; 75: 78–81. 87. Kosloske AM, Williamson SL. An expandable prosthesis for stabilization of the infant mediastinum following pneumonectomy. J Pediatr Surg 1992; 27: 1521–2. 88. Shanti CM, Klein MD. Cystic lung disease. Semin Pediatr Surg 2008; 17(1): 2–8. 89. Stocker JT. Cystic lung disease in infants and children. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 2009; 28(4): 155–84. 90. Bush A. Prenatal presentation and postnatal management of congenital thoracic malformations. Early Hum Dev 2009; 85(11): 679–84. 91. Adzick NS. Management of fetal lung lesions. Clin Perinatol 2009; 36(2): 363–76. 92. Aziz D, Langer JC, Tuuha SE et al. Perinatally diagnosed asymptomatic congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation: to resect or not? J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39(3): 329–34. 93. Rahman N, Lakhoo K. Comparison between open and thoracoscopic resection of congenital lung lesions. J Pediatr Surg 2009; 44(2): 333–6. 94. Vu LT, Farmer DL, Nobuhara KK et al. Thoracoscopic versus open resection for congenital cystic adenomatoid malformations of the lung. J Pediatr Surg 2008; 43(1): 35–9. 95. Guruswamy V, Roberts S, Arnold P, Potter F. Anaesthetic management of a neonate with congenital cyst adenoid malformation. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95(2): 240–2. 96. Tempe DK, Virmani S, Javetkar S et al. Congenital lobar emphysema: pitfalls and management. Ann Card Anaesth 2010; 13(1): 53–8. 97. Birmingham PK, Uejima T, Luck SR. Anesthetic management of the patient with a bronchogenic cyst: a review of 24 cases. Anesth Analg 1993; 76(4): 879–83. 98. Keon TP. Death on induction of anesthesia for cervical node biopsy. Anesthesiology 1981; 55(4): 471–2. 99. Lin SH, Su NY, Hseu CK et al. Anesthetic managements of the patients with giant mediastinal tumors – a report of two cases. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin 1999; 37(3): 133–9. 100. King DR, Patrick LE, Ginn-Pease ME et al. Pulmonary function is compromised in children with mediastinal lymphoma. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32(2): 299–300. 101. Ng A, Bennett J, Bromley P, Davies P, Morland B. Anaesthetic outcome and predictive risk factors in children with mediastinal tumours. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007; 48(2): 160–4. 102. Slinger P, Karsli C. Management of the patient with a large anterior mediastinal mass: recurring myths. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007; 20(1): 1–3. 103. Gothard JW. Anesthetic considerations for patients with anterior mediastinal masses. Anesthesiol Clin 2008; 26(2): 305–14. 104. nghelescu DL, Burgoyne LL, Liu T et al. Clinical and diagnostic imaging findings predict anesthetic complications in children presenting with malignant mediastinal masses. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17(11): 1090–8. 105. Azarow KS, Pearle RH, Zurcher R et al. Primary mediastinal masses. A comparison of adult and pediatric populations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 106(1): 67–72. 106. Azizkhan RG, Dudgeon DL, Buck JR et al. Life-threatening airway obstruction as a complication to the management of mediastinal masses in children. J Pediatr Surg 1985; 20(6): 816–22. 109. Hack HA, Wright NB, Wynn RF. The anaesthetic management of children with anterior mediastinal masses. Anaesthesia 2008; 63(8): 837–46. 110. Shamberger RC, Holzman RS, Griscom NT et al. Prospective evaluation by computed tomography and pulmonary function tests of children with mediastinal masses. Surgery 1995; 118(3): 468–71. 111. Vander Els NJ, Sorhage F, Bach AM et al. Abnormal flow volume loops in patients with intrathoracic Hodgkin's disease. Chest 2000; 117(5): 1256–61. 112. Tobias JD, Bozeman PM, Mackert PW, Rao B. Postoperative outcome following thoracotomy in the pediatric oncology patient with diminished pulmonary function. J Surg Oncol 1993; 52(2): 105–9. 113. Ferrari LR, Bedford RF. General anesthesia prior to treatment of anterior mediastinal masses in pediatric cancer patients. Anesthesiology 1990; 72(6): 991–5. 114. Erdos G, Tzanova I. Perioperative anaesthetic management of mediastinal mass in adults. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2009; 26(8): 627–32. 115. Hammer GB. Anaesthetic management for the child with a mediastinal mass. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14(1): 95–7. 116. Aboud A, Marx G, Sayer H, Gummert JF. Successful treatment of an aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma associated with acute respiratory insufficiency using extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2008; 7(1): 173–4. 117. Frey TK, Chopra A, Lin RJ et al. A child with anterior mediastinal mass supported with veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2006; 7(5): 479–81. 118. Chao VT, Lim DW, Tao M et al. Tracheobronchial obstruction as a result of mediastinal mass. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 2006; 14(2): 17–18. 119. Wickiser JE, Thompson M, Leavey PJ et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) initiation without intubation in two children with mediastinal malignancy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007; 49(5): 751–4. 120. Asai T. Emergency cardiopulmonary bypass in a patient with a mediastinal mass. Anesthesia 2007; 62(8): 859–60. 121. Soliman LM, Mossad EB. Thoracic epidural catheter in the management of a child with an anterior mediastinal mass: a case report and literature review. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16(2): 200–5. 122. Lida H. Surgical repair of pectus excavatum. Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2010; 58(2): 55–61. 123. Humphreys GH, Jaretzki A. Pectus excavatum. Late results with and without operation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1980; 80(5): 686–95. 124. Mansour KA, Thourani VH, Odessey EA et al. Thirty-year experience with repair of pectus deformities in adults. Ann Thorac Surg 2003; 76(2): 391–5. 125. Haller JAJ, Loughlin GM. Cardiorespiratory function is significantly improved following corrective surgery for severe pectus excavatum. Proposed treatment guidelines. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 2000; 41(1): 125–30. 126. Nuss D, Croitoru DP, Kelly REJ et al. Review and discussion of the complications. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2002; 12(4): 230–4. 127. Nuss D, Kelly REJ, Croitoru DP, Katz ME. A 10-year review of a minimally invasive technique for the correction of pectus excavatum. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33(4): 545–52. 128. Conti ME. Anesthetic management of acute subcutaneous emphysema and pneumothorax following a Nuss procedure: a case report. AANA J 2009; 77(3): 208–11. 129. Fox ME, Bensard DD, Roaten JB, Hendrickson RJ. Positioning for the Nuss procedure: avoiding brachial plexus injury. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15(12): 1067–71. 130. Futagawa K, Suwa I, Okuda T et al. Anesthetic management for the minimally invasive Nuss procedure in 21 patients with pectus excavatum. J Anesth 2006; 20(1): 48–50. 131. Weber T, Mätzl J, Rokitansky A et al. Superior postoperative pain relief with thoracic epidural analgesia versus intravenous patient-controlled analgesia after minimally invasive pectus excavatum repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007; 134(4): 865–70. 132. Cucchiaro G, Adzick SN, Rose JB et al. A comparison of epidural bupivacaine-fentanyl and bupivacaine-clonidine in children undergoing the Nuss procedure. Anesth Analg 2006; 103(2): 322–7. 133. Soliman IE, Apuya JS, Fertal KM et al. Intravenous versus epidural analgesia after surgical repair of pectus excavatum. Am J Ther 2009; 16(5): 398–403. 134. Lobe TE. Perioperative hypnosis reduces hospitalization in patients undergoing the Nuss procedure for pectus excavatum. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 2006; 16(6): 639–42. 135. Chonmaitree T, Powell KR. Parapneumonic pleural effusion and empyema in children. Review of a 19-year experience, 1962–1980. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1983; 22(6): 414–19. 136. Hawkins JA, Scaife ES, Hillman ND, Feola GP. Current treatment of pediatric empyema. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004; 16(3): 196–200. 137. Proesmans M, de Boeck K. Clinical practice: treatment of childhood empyema. Eur J Pediatr 2009; 168(6): 639–45. 138. Balfour-Lynn IM. Some consensus but little evidence: guidelines on management of pleural infection in children. Thorax 2005; 60(2): 94–6. 139. Hamm H, Light RW. Parapneumonic effusion and empyema. Eur Respir J 1997; 10(5): 1150–6. 140. Klena JW, Cameron BH, Langer JC et al. Timing of video-assisted thoracoscopic debridement for pediatric empyema. J Am Coll Surg 1998; 187(4): 404–8. 141. Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax 2005; 60(1): 1–21. 142. Stovroff M, Teague G, Heiss KF et al. Thoracoscopy in the management of pediatric empyema. J Pediatr Surg 1995; 30(8): 1211–15. 143. Kurt BA, Winterhalter KM, Connors RH et al. Therapy of parapneumonic effusions in children: video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus conventional thoracostomy drainage. Pediatrics 2006; 118(3): 547–53. 144. Avansino JR, Goldman B, Sawin RS, Flum DR. Primary operative versus nonoperative therapy for pediatric empyema: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2005; 115(6): 1652–9. 145. Gates RL, Caniano DA, Hayes JR, Arca MJ. Does VATS provide optimal treatment of empyema in children? A systematic review. J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39(3): 381–6. 146. Su-Ting TL, Gates RL. Primary operative management for pediatric empyema: decreases in hospital length of stay and charges in a national sample. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008; 162(1): 44–8. 147. Shah SS, DiCristina CM, Bell LM et al. Primary early thoracoscopy and reduction in length of hospital stay and additional procedures among children with complicated pneumonia: results of a multicenter retrospective cohort study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008; 162(7): 675–81. 148. Chen JS, Huang KC, Chen YC et al. Pediatric empyema: outcome analysis of thoracoscopic management. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2009; 137(5): 1195–9. 149. Grewal H, Jackson RJ, Wagner CW, Smith SD. Early video-assisted thoracic surgery in the management of empyema. Pediatrics. 1999; 103(5): 63.