12
LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP
CHAPTER SCAN
Leaders direct and guide followers in the organization, recognizing both roles as critical to the
success of the organization. There is a positive relationship between leaders and followers in
organizations, and a distinct difference between leadership and management. Leaders may be
autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire in their approach. This chapter divides leadership theories
into four schemes correlating to universal trait theories, universal behavioral theories, contingent
trait theories, and contingent behavioral theories. Several theories are examined, and the
relationship between leaders and followers is discussed. Specific emphasis is placed on the
Leadership Grid, Fiedler's theory, path-goal theory, normative decision theory, and the situational
leadership model.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define leadership and followership.
2. Discuss the differences between leadership and management, and between leaders and
managers.
3. Compare autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles.
4. Explain initiating structure and consideration, leader behaviors, and the Leadership Grid.
5. Explain Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership.
6. Distinguish among the path-goal theory, the Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and the situational
leadership model.
7. Distinguish among transformational, transactional, and charismatic leaders.
8. Discuss the characteristics of effective and dynamic followers.
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KEY TERMS
Chapter 12 introduces the following key terms:
leadership
formal leadership
informal leadership
followership
leader
manager
autocratic style
democratic style
laissez-faire style
initiating structure
consideration
Leadership Grid
organization man manager (5,5)
authority-compliance manager (9,1)
country club manger (1,9)
team manager (9,9)
impoverished manager (1,1)
paternalistic “father knows best” manager (9+9)
opportunistic “what’s in it for me” manager (Opp)
least preferred coworker (LPC)
task structure
position power
leader–member relations
charismatic leadership
dynamic follower
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I.
LOOKING AHEAD: A Loudmouthed Activist
II.
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leaders are either formal leaders (officially sanctioned based on power and authority) or
informal leaders (unofficial leadership accorded by other members of the organization). All
leaders guide and direct the behavior of other people in the work environment. Leaders cannot
accomplish goals without the assistance of followers. Followership is the process of being
guided and directed by the leader.
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Good leaders are not necessarily good managers, nor are good managers necessarily good
leaders. According to Kotter, managers control complexity and leaders produce change. Leaders
work for change; managers advocate stability. Leaders and managers differ along four distinct
personality dimensions: attitudes toward goals, conceptions of work, relationships with others,
and sense of self.
III.
EARLY TRAIT THEORIES
The first studies of leadership attempted to identify what physical attributes, personality
characteristics, and abilities, distinguished leaders from other members of a group.
Physical attributes mentioned as leadership traits included height, weight, physique,
energy, health and appearance. There are biases for and against certain types of physical
attributes, yet the research does not indicate that these attributes are inherently better or
necessarily a leadership characteristic. Personality characteristics have been useful, and
ability measurements are the closest of the three categories to being relevant. However,
trait research has not been conclusive, which has led to the other approaches described in
the following sections.
IV.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Behavioral theories focus on leaders’ actions and behaviors.
A.
Lewin Studies
Kurt Lewin identified three leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Autocratic leaders use strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the rules,
regulations, and relationships in the work environment. Students may view military
leadership as autocratic, although this is a stereotype that has changed. A democratic
leader takes collaborative, responsive, interactive actions with followers concerning the
work and work environment. The laissez-faire leader fails to accept the responsibility of
the position. Many students (and adults) confuse laissez-faire and democratic leadership
styles.
B.
Ohio State Studies
Leadership behavior is often determined by the Leader Behavior Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ), which identifies the dimensions of initiating structure and
consideration. A leader with an initiating structure style defines and organizes work
relationships and roles, and is clear about ways of getting things done. In contrast, the
consideration style leader aims at creating a nurturing, friendly, warm working
relationship.
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C.
Michigan Studies
Similarly, studies at the University of Michigan identified the two dimensions referred to
as employee oriented and production oriented. A production orientation focuses on
getting the work done, with constant influence attempts by the leader. An employee
orientation focuses on relationships and concern for people and their needs.
D.
The Leadership Grid: A Contemporary Extension
Blake and Mouton developed the Leadership Grid based on the Ohio State leadership
studies. The Leadership Grid is a matrix that divides types of leaders into levels of
concern for either production or people. The focus, in this case, is on the leader’s
attitudes.
With further development, the original five dimensions of the grid have been expanded to
seven. These dimensions include: organization man manager (5,5), a manager with
balanced concern for people and production but commitment to neither; authoritycompliance manager (9,1), a manager who emphasizes efficient production; countryclub manager (1,9), a manager who creates a happy, comfortable work environment;
team manager (9,9), a manager who builds a highly productive team of committed
people; impoverished manager (1,1), a manager who exerts just enough effort to avoid
being fired; paternalistic “father knows best” manager (9+9), a manager who uses
both rewards and punishments; and opportunistic “what’s in it for me” manager
(Opp), a manager who uses whatever style most benefits him or her.
The team leader is considered ideal.
V.
CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Contingency theories of leadership are concerned with identifying the situationally specific
conditions in which leaders with particular traits are most effective. In contingency theories,
traits must be considered in the context of the situation, rather than in isolation.
A.
Fiedler's Contingency Theory
Fiedler's theory suggests that leaders are either task oriented or relationship oriented,
depending on how they obtain their primary need gratification. Task-oriented leaders are
primarily gratified by accomplishing tasks, whereas relationship-oriented leaders are
gratified by positive, comfortable interpersonal relationships. The effectiveness of the
style results from the situation in which it is enacted. To determine the fit, Fiedler
developed the LPC, or least preferred coworker, questionnaire to determine the type of
person with which a leader least prefers to work with. Task structure refers to the
number and clarity of rules, regulations, and procedures for getting the work done.
Position power refers to the leader’s legitimate authority to evaluate and reward
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performance, punish errors, and demote group members. The quality of leader–member
relations is measured by the Group-Atmosphere Scale.
Fiedler proposes that it is unlikely that a leader will change behavior to fit the situation.
Consequently, if possible, the situation should be altered to complement the leader's style.
This contingency theory emphasizes the contribution of the leader's situation. The
situation has three dimensions: task structure, position power, and leader–member
relations. A favorable leadership situation is one that has a structured task, strong
position power, and good leader–member relations. Task-oriented leaders are more
effective in either highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented
leaders are more effective in moderately favorable situations.
C.
The Path–Goal Theory
Path–goal theory sets forth four leader behavior styles from which the leader selects the
most appropriate style to help followers clarify the paths that lead them to work and
personal goals. The four styles are: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement
oriented. The choice of styles must be made with the specific followers and work
environment in mind. This theory is based on the expectancy theory of motivation.
D.
Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Decision Theory
The normative decision theory refers to a sequential set of rules that should be followed
to determine the level of participation employees should be given in decision making.
This theory gives credence to authoritarian approaches as well as democratic approaches,
specifying that the best decision making strategy will become apparent through the use of
a decision tree. This style is based on five degrees of participation from followers.
E.
The Situational Leadership Model
The maturity level of the followers dictates the role of the leader in the situational
leadership model. The positive side of this model is that it focuses on the followers as the
key decision variable in determining an appropriate leadership style. As followers become
mature, less task-oriented behavior and more relationship-oriented behavior is needed.
VII.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN LEADERSHIP THEORY
Four additional views of leadership are important: leader–member exchange, substitutes for
leadership, transformational leadership, and charismatic leadership.
A.
Leader–Member Exchange
In this concept of leadership, leaders form two groups of followers. In-group members
are similar to the leader and are given greater responsibilities, more rewards, and more
attention. Consequently, they are more satisfied, have lower turnover, and higher
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organizational commitment. Out-group members have limited responsibilities, receive
less attention and fewer rewards, and are managed by formal rules and policies.
B.
Substitutes for Leadership
The central idea of this theory is that some situations can neutralize or replace leader
behavior. Satisfying tasks, high skill on the part of the employee, team cohesiveness, and
formal controls are some things that can substitute for leadership.
C.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders motivate followers to achieve high levels of performance by
converting vision into reality and inspiring followers to perform above and beyond the
call of duty. Transformational leaders rely on their personal attributes rather than their
position in motivating their followers.
D.
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership is characterized by the use of personal abilities and talents that
have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. The charismatic leaders rely
heavily on referent power, and their unique and powerful gifts generate great influence
with followers. This particularly strong ability to influence followers can lead to high
levels of achievement, but can also lead to great harm for the followers or others.
VIII.
EMERGING ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP
Several issues have emerged recently from leadership research that warrant discussion. These
issues include emotional intelligence, trust, virtual teams, women leaders, and servant leadership.
A.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage emotion in oneself and in
others. It includes several competencies, such as self-awareness, empathy, adaptability,
and self-confidence.
B.
Trust
Trust is the willingness to make oneself vulnerable to the actions of others, an essential
element in leadership. Trustworthiness is one of the competencies in emotional
intelligence.
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C.
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Leading Virtual Teams
Virtual teams have members in different organizations, or different parts of the same
organization, in diverse geographic locations. As a result, they may not have shared
understandings of problems, norms, work distribution, roles, or responsibilities.
Creativity is essential in leading virtual teams because the usual leader–member
interactions do not exist.
D.
Women Leaders
The question is, do women and men lead differently? Research suggests that women tend
to use a more people-oriented leadership style that is inclusive and empowering, and tend
to excel in positions that demand strong interpersonal skills.
E.
Servant Leadership
Servant leadership is a view of leadership that asserts that leaders lead by serving others,
that work exists for the person as much as the person exists for work, and that servant
leaders are stewards who consider leadership a trust.
IX.
FOLLOWERSHIP
This is a relatively new approach and topic, so the research accompanying the topic is scant.
Followers have been viewed historically as either passive or autonomous. New concepts of
empowerment and self-managed work teams have altered views of the follower role and have
increased the role's importance in leadership thought and research.
A.
Types of Followers
Followers are classified as either active or passive, and as either independent, critical
thinkers or dependent, uncritical thinkers. Effective followers practice self-management
and self-responsibility, and are committed to the organization and a purpose or person
outside themselves. They are not self-centered, but are courageous, honest, and credible.
B.
X.
The Dynamic Follower
A dynamic follower is a follower who is a responsible steward of his or her job, is
effective in managing the relationship with the boss, and practices self-management.
Challenge 12.2 helps students determine whether they are dynamic followers.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP
Globalization will increase the information available on differences in leadership styles. Limited
research has indicated that there are great differences in styles among various cultures.
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XI.
GUIDELINES FOR LEADERSHIP
Although there is no one definitive style that is preferable in all situations, there are guidelines
that are useful in most leadership approaches. First, leaders and organizations should appreciate
the unique talents of each leader. Second, leaders should be chosen who challenge the
organizational culture, when necessary, without destroying it. Third, participative, considerate
leader behaviors appear to enhance the health and well-being of followers. Fourth, different
situations require different leadership behaviors. Finally, good leaders are likely to be good
followers.
XII.
LOOKING BACK: The Loudmouthed Leader Comes Through
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
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






Leadership is the process of guiding and directing the behavior of followers in organizations.
Followership is the process of being guided and directed by a leader. Leaders and followers
are companions in these processes.
A leader creates meaningful change in organizations, whereas a manager controls complexity.
Charismatic leaders have a profound impact on their followers.
Autocratic leaders create high pressure for followers, whereas democratic leaders create
healthier environments for followers.
The five styles in the Leadership Grid are organization man manager, authority-compliance
manager, country club manager, team manager, and impoverished manager.
According to Fiedler’s contingency theory, task-oriented leaders are most effective in highly
favorable or highly unfavorable leadership situations, and relationship-oriented leaders are
most effective in moderately favorable leadership situations.
The path–goal theory, Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and situational leadership model say that a
leader should adjust his or her behavior to the situation and should appreciate diversity
among followers.
There are many developments in leadership. Emerging issues include emotional intelligence,
trust, virtual teams, women leaders, and servant leadership.
Effective, dynamic followers are competent and active in their work, assertive, independent
thinkers, sensitive to their bosses' needs and demands, and responsible self-managers. Caring
leadership and dynamic followership go together.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Define leadership and followership. Distinguish between formal leadership and informal
leadership.
Leaders guide and direct the behaviors of followers in organizations. On the other hand,
followers accept the guidance and direction of the leader. Formal leadership is sanctioned by
power and authority. Informal leadership is accorded to an individual by other members of the
organization.
2. Discuss transformational and charismatic leadership. Would you expect these styles of
leadership to exist in all cultures? Differ across cultures?
Transformational leaders set directions for the organization, align people with directions through
empowerment, and motivate organizational followers to action. Charisma is a form of
interpersonal attraction, and is an attribute found in some leaders. This trait allows leaders to be
persuasive based on trust and acceptance. Charismatic leaders tend to be self-confident.
Transformational and charismatic leaders may exist in all cultures; however, the types of
behaviors exhibited by these leaders may differ across cultures.
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3. Describe the differences between autocratic and democratic work environments. How do they
differ from a laissez-faire workplace?
Autocratic and democratic are usually easy for students to differentiate. Autocratic leaders are
typically forceful personalities who are rigid in enforcing rules. In contrast, democratic leaders
appreciate collaboration, and interact frequently with followers. Laissez-faire leaders abdicate
responsibility and their indifference forces others into ambiguous situations.
4. Define initiating structure and consideration as leader behaviors.
Initiating structure is a task-oriented approach that focuses on rules, responsibilities, and policies.
Consideration is a relationship-oriented behavior that focuses on understanding one’s employees.
5. Describe the middle-of-the-road manager, authority-compliance manager, country club
manager, team manager, and impoverished manager.
The middle-of-the-road manager balances getting work done and maintaining morale. The
authority-compliance manager emphasizes production. The country club manager focuses on the
needs of people. The team manager emphasizes work accomplishment through committed
people. The impoverished manager uses a laissez-faire style of management.
6. How does the LPC scale measure leadership style? What are the three dimensions of the
leader’s situation?
The LPC scale measures leadership style by asking leaders to describe the person with whom
they would least prefer to work. The three situational dimensions are task structure, position
power, and leader–member relations.
7. Describe the alternative decision strategies used by a leader in the Vroom-Yetton-Jago
normative decision theory.
In the AI form, the manager makes the decision alone; in the AII form, the manager seeks
information from employees or peers and then makes the decision; in the CI form, the manager
explains the problem to appropriate peers or employees, one-on-one, and then makes the
decision; in the CII form, the manager explains the problem to employees or peers as a group and
then makes the decision; in the G form, the manager explains the problem to employees or peers
as a group and the group makes the decision.
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8. Compare House’s path–goal theory of leadership with the situational leadership model.
Both are contingency theories of leadership that examine specific leader behaviors that are most
effective in specific situations. Both propose four similar leadership styles (Path–Goal: directive,
supportive, participative, and achievement oriented; Situational: telling, selling, participating,
and delegating). While path–goal theory examines characteristics of both the followers and the
work environment as situational characteristics, the situational leadership model only examines
the maturity level of followers as a situational characteristic.
9. Describe alienated followers, sheep, yes people, survivors, and effective followers.
Alienated followers think independently, but are passive; sheep do not think independently and
are passive; yes people do not think independently and are active in their behavior; survivors are
low-risk followers and the least disruptive; and effective followers practice self-management, are
committed to the organization, are not self-centered, invest in their competence, and are
courageous, honest, and credible.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Do you (or would you want to) work in an autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire work
environment? What might be the advantages of each work environment? The disadvantages?
The logical answer for students to offer is a preference for a democratic environment. However,
there are advantages to the autocratic and laissez-faire environments. Self-directed individuals
might find it challenging to be left alone in a laissez-faire environment, if they could ultimately
be responsible and receive credit for their ideas. Individuals preferring a high degree of direction
might prefer the autocratic environment, or someone wanting to learn a great deal quickly might
value an autocratic environment for a short time.
2. Is your supervisor or professor someone who is high in concern for production? High in
concern for people? What is his or her Leadership Grid style?
It is interesting to have students pool their responses regarding your leadership grid style and
have them count, and put the #s in the grid on the board. You might want to do this on a day you
are feeling very secure.
3. What decision strategies does your supervisor use to make decisions? Are they consistent or
inconsistent with the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model?
Students without work experience may wish to use the leader of an organization with which they
are affiliated. It is probably worth mentioning to students that extrapolating from one incident is
a dangerous approach, and very often inaccurate. The appropriate style depends on situational
factors such as time quality, commitment, and information available.
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4. Discuss the similarities and differences between effective leadership and dynamic
followership. Are you dynamic?
Both exhibit characteristics of responsibility and self-management. Students might want to
contrast the difference between when they have been dynamic followers, and in situations they
have not been dynamic followers.
5. Describe the relationship you have with your supervisor or professor. What is the best part of
the relationship? The worst part? What could you do to make the relationship better?
Many students have difficulty staying a dynamic follower because people generally find it
easier to allow the leader to become autocratic than for them to remain dynamic followers.
6. Who is the leader you admire the most? Write a description of this person including his or her
characteristics and attributes that you admire. Note any aspects of this leader or his or her
behavior that you find less than wholly admirable.
This question could serve as a good introduction to the material in the chapter. As each theory of
leadership is discussed, references could be made back to characteristics and attributes that
students identified in their most admired leaders.
7. Refresh yourself on the distinction between leaders (also called transformational leaders) and
managers (also called transactional leaders) in the text. Then read about four contemporary
business leaders. Prepare a brief summary of each and classify them as leaders or managers.
In this assignment, it is important that students tie specific examples of the behaviors and
characteristics of the four leaders they read about to specific characteristics of leaders and
managers given in the text.
8. Interview a supervisor or manager about the best follower the supervisor or manager has
worked with. Ask questions about the characteristics and behaviors that made this person such a
good follower. Note in particular how this follower responds to change. Be prepared to present
your interview results in class.
Compare and contrast the responses of different supervisors and managers regarding their best
followers. Students could be challenged to consider whether or not they, personally, exhibit these
characteristics in work and/or school settings.
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ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Is it ethical for leaders to tell followers unilaterally what to do without asking their opinions
or getting any input from them?
Some would counter that it is ethical to take responsibility for actions, rather than to delegate the
responsibility to others. The example that comes to mind is the situation where the Japanese
CEO resigned because of embarrassment related to a product. In some high profile examples in
the U.S., we have instances where no one takes responsibility for actions.
2. Is it acceptable for a leader to take credit for the work of followers for whom he or she has
responsibility?
Most students will relate that they know this happens frequently. However, it is a form of deceit.
3. If a leader is using a delegating leadership style and big problems develop in the team's work,
is the leader still responsible for what happens?
Yes, legally and by lines of responsibility. Legal cases often cite both the immediate supervisor
and the stakeholders of the company in wrongful acts. Delegating does not relieve one of
responsibility.
4. If a follower disagrees with the supervisor's directions, is the follower obligated to follow
those directions anyway? Or is the follower obligated to be disobedient while adhering to a
moral principle?
The first question and the second question are very different. The first asks only if there is a
disagreement, and does not mention a moral or ethical issue. Authority mandates that we fulfill
our responsibilities. However, we do not have to follow acts that we view as immoral.
5. What should you do if your supervisor acts in an unethical or illegal manner? Talk with the
supervisor? Immediately report the action to the company's ethics committee?
Problem reporting is increasing in organizations because many organizational members have
been frustrated with ethics violations. If an employee is fearful of reprisal, there should be a
reporting procedure to bring the issue to light outside the immediate working department. Most
of the time, if the employee is convinced that the supervisor is acting with knowledge of the
wrongful act, it is better for the individual to bypass the supervisor. Also, it is a different
situation if there are other individuals involved in the matter.
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CHALLENGES
12.1 HOW DOES YOUR SUPERVISOR LEAD?
This would be a good challenge to have students complete before discussing task and people
orientations to leadership so that they have a personal experience to relate to the text material.
12.2 ARE YOU AN EFFECTIVE FOLLOWER?
Students who do not fall into the category of an effective follower may want to consider the
implications of this for the type of job they might choose. They may also want to consider
specific steps they could take to become a more effective follower.
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EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
12.1 NATIONAL CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP
This instrument measures Hofstede’s four traditional dimensions of national culture – uncertainty
avoidance, individualism, power distance, and masculinity. It also measures a fifth dimension,
paternalism. “The paternalism scale includes items that assess the appropriateness of managers
taking a personal interest in workers’ lives, providing for workers’ personal needs, and generally
taking care of workers.”1
The following shows which items should go with which scales:
1-5
6-11
12-17
18-24
25-29
Uncertainty avoidance
Individualism
Power Distance
Paternalism
Masculinity
This instrument has no scoring mechanism. There are two ways to evaluate the results:
1. Have the students determine their total scores for each of the five sections (higher score is
indicative of strength on that dimension towards the value the dimension’s title indicates) and
see which of the dimensions scores higher. They can see, relative to themselves, how the
dimensions vary in strength.
2. Take mean scores from the whole class either:
a) for each separate item
b) for each of the five sections
Then write these means on the board and discuss the relevance of the variability of the scores.
1
Adapted from Peter Dorfman, Advances in International Comparative Management, vol. 3, pg.
127-150. Copyright 1988 by JAI Press Inc. Used with permission. D. Marcic and S. M. Puffer,
“Dimensions of National Culture and Effective Leadership Patterns: Hofstede Revisited,”
Management International (Minneapolis/St. Paul, West Publishing, 1994): 10-15.
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12.2 LEADERSHIP AND INFLUENCE
Instructor's Notes:
Students do not have to have been in an authority position to answer the leadership questionnaire.
Be sure to mention to students that lack of experience might, however, influence their scores.
One of the more interesting discussions surrounding this survey is to ask students that score high
on the people-oriented to change their style.
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
LEADERSHIP TALKS
Instructor's Notes:
One important way to instill the difficulties of leadership is to provide students with the
opportunity to fulfill a "locker room talk" classroom activity. Up to three students sign up for
one of the topics provided, with the understanding that they will deliver a one to two minute talk
on the topic.
For each topic, three students could make presentations. Students are asked to select a topic, and
sign up for a particular time, within a two-week time frame. Students are free to select the
organizational scenario to which their speech will pertain. Talks should last 1 to 2 minutes each.
It is helpful to have a timekeeper signal the end of each 2-minute speaking period. Before the
"clock begins", each student is asked to provide a brief description of the scenario selected. The
audience plays the role called for by the day's topic. After each set of 3 presentations (for a class
of 36), there is a brief discussion about the leadership style and presentation.
To ensure useful feedback, 3 rules might be helpful: (1) Do not allow the day's speakers to
comment during the critique period. This prevents defensive reactions and excuse making. (2)
Make sure all speakers receive some feedback. Although one speaker may overshadow others,
all should receive critical commentary. (3) Make sure speakers learn at least one strength and
one weakness of their performance.
Students with limited experience, unfortunately, sometimes see the exercise as primarily a
speech-making effort. They should be encouraged to see it in its broader context.
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LEADERSHIP TALKS
Richard G. Linowes, "Filling a Gap in Management Education: Giving Leadership Talks in
the Classroom", Journal of Management Education, Vol. 16, (1), February 1992, 6-24.
TOPICS FOR THE LEADERSHIP TALKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Taking charge of an established group
The speaker is a manager now newly assigned to a group that has worked together under
other managers for some time.
Announcing a new project
The speaker is announcing a new undertaking to members of his or her department and is
calling on all to rally behind the effort.
Calling for better customer service
The speaker is motivating all employees to be attentive and responsive to the customer.
Calling for excellence and high-quality work
The speaker is motivating all employees to perform their jobs with a commitment to
meeting the highest possible standards.
Announcing the need for cost reductions
The speaker is requesting that everyone look for ways to cut expenditures and
immediately begin slashing spending.
Commending for a job well done
The speaker is motivating all employees to perform their jobs with a commitment to
meeting the highest possible standards.
Reprimanding unacceptable behavior
The speaker is calling to task certain individuals who have failed to perform up to
required levels.
Calming a frightened group of people
The speaker is endeavoring to restore peace and confidence to those who now panic in the
face of distressing business developments.
Addressing a challenging opposition
The speaker is presenting some heartfelt belief to a critical, even hostile, audience.
Mediating opposing parties
The speaker is calling for reconciliation between two groups bitterly opposed on some
key issue.
Taking responsibility for error
The speaker is the figurehead spokesman for an institution that has produced some
unfortunate result affecting the audience.
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Lessons From Each Leadership Topic
Suggested issues to be raised when discussing each leadership talk topic:
1. Taking Charge of an Established Group
This talk is the icebreaker, in which students first appreciate the pain and value of class feedback.
The audience looks for openness and confidence in their new leader. They respond well to signs
of a team orientation and a healthy respect for their accumulated knowledge and experience.
Authoritarian introductions may work, but not without associated risks and down-the-road costs.
New leaders must be aware that in some settings a few individuals may feel resentment that they
were not given the leadership position; such situations require special sensitivity.
2. Announcing a New Project
This talk is a leader's declaration of group responsibility for a new endeavor. The audience looks
for an upbeat, enthusiastic introduction to the project, presented with the leader's assurances that
the undertaking is both important and feasible. Acknowledging the group's past achievements,
the leader may expect the project to be challenging, demanding the best work from each and
every individual on the team.
3. Calling for Better Customer Service
This talk is the first of a series of admonitions aimed at steering the group in a direction of
possible major strategic importance. Describing the current negative situation - stemming
typically from the increased competition, lax performance standards, or more demanding
customers - the leader calls for change. Public finger pointing for past mistakes is usually not
effective, but illustrative behaviors help make the point. Expressing understanding and empathy
for the strains of customer contact helps build rapport with the audience. Looking forward, the
leader may set some targets and call for renewed individual and group accountability. He or she
may solicit new ideas for improving service and express confidence that the team can bring about
the desired turnaround.
4. Calling for Excellence and High-Quality Work
This talk is another effort to steer the group in a direction of possible strategic import, focusing
attention on the quality of people's work. At some point in time, most groups require such
improvements, whether the deficiencies reflect the actions of a few individuals or the group as a
whole. The discussion might focus on the importance of quality work, the need for renewed
commitment to high standards, and a reiteration of personal and group accountability. The
audience welcomes a leader's openness to new ideas and expressed confidence that the group can
institute all needed changes.
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5. Announcing the Need for Cost Reductions
Although this talk also steers the group in a direction of possible strategic importance, it
expresses a theme that is important to every budget-conscious organization. Some historical
perspective on creeping costs or eroding profits is usually helpful, as well as some indication of
specific budget items that have now become excessive. Key discussion points include the
importance of the matter at hand, the value of setting targets, and the need for personal and/or
group accountability. Many students addressing this topic present an ultimatum, raising the
possibility of job dismissals or layoffs. People should understand the positive and negative
cultural implications of such approaches. Illustrations drawn from real work experience of
participants are welcome here.
6. Commending for a Job Well Done
This talk represents a joyous occasion for speaking to a group of people, perhaps insufficiently
practiced in many organizations. The audience appreciates the leader who will take time out to
celebrate their accomplishments. Such talks provide public acknowledgment of group efforts,
and they recognize and thank those who have played key roles at work. Missed or fumbled
opportunities for uttering praise can breed resentment and a we-versus-they mentality.
Many students are too cavalier in rushing to offer financial rewards for good work; they should
understand that most organizations provide very limited opportunities for sizable bonuses and
that generous bonus schemes often carry undesirable consequences (stirring up possible
resentments: for example, is it equitable? Will it be available next year now that people expect
it?). Finally, the instructor may use this topic to comment on the value of nonverbal
communication: During the discussion period, challenge someone to come forward to commend
the group for a job well done without using any words.
7. Reprimanding Unacceptable Behavior
This talk is the flip side of a commendation, for here the objective is to correct the group's
wrongdoing, although poor quality work or excessive costs may trigger such a speech, even more
insightful are those occasions when the leader calls for an end to unethical or unsportsmanlike
behavior. It is the behavior that is unacceptable, not the people - as long as they correct their
ways. The effective speaker is very clear and very firm, explaining exactly what is unacceptable
and why it is so. He or she then sets a clear standard and describes the consequences of any
continued wrongdoing. The audience responds well to the leader who speaks with true
conviction and appears unwavering. The leader may end on a positive note, emphasizing the
importance of moving forward to tackle the work that they must accomplish together.
8. Calming a Frightened Group of People
This talk begins the focus on the more emotional side of organizational life, where the leader
plays a key role in stemming people's fears while holding the group together. The audience looks
to the leader's assurances of personal resolve, and if possible, personal control over the situation
at hand. They appreciate the leader's understanding and sense of concern for them as people, and
they welcome a personal pledge of continued openness and support. Interesting scenarios
selected for this topic include sudden financial loss, corporate takeovers, terrorist threats, and
even earthquakes.
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9. Addressing a Challenging Opposition
This talk, the second focusing on emotional issues, provides the forum for exploring the
fundamental role of commitment in the demonstration of true leadership. Here, the leader
presents some heartfelt message to a hostile audience, demonstrating a show of courage and
personal resolve. The experience highlights differences between popularity and effectiveness
("sometimes you've gotta do what you gotta do") and between casual speech and speaking with
conviction. Interesting scenarios selected for this topic include labor hostility, environmental
opposition, and anti-military demonstrations.
10. Mediating Opposing Parties
This talk is a demonstration of the key role of a leader in forging a reunification of opposing
groups within an organization. Reminding the group of their shared superordinate goals and
common vision, the leader shakes them from their provincial concerns, instills in them a spirit of
compromise, and renews their common pursuit of shared commitments. The audience responds
favorably to the leader who expresses understanding of each opposing viewpoint while
acknowledging each viewpoint's legitimacy. Effective speakers also sometimes pinpoint a
deadline for moving forward, demanding finality in the resolution of the dispute.
11. Taking Responsibility for Error
This talk presents the leader with the difficult task of admitting error to external groups for
organizational misdeeds, oversights, or alleged violations of the public trust. The leader here is
the symbol of institutional identity and continuity. As spokesperson to the outside world, the
leader must work to restore trust in the organization, its values, and its intended contributions to
society. The audience responds favorably to announcements that are sincere, that demonstrate
the organization's willingness to take responsibility for the past, and that state specific action
plans for responsible behavior in the future.
12. Petitioning for Special Allowances
This talk illustrates the leader's role in representing the organization to external bodies that
exercise some degree of control over its activities. As spokesperson for the institution, the leader
stands for its mission and values and now seeks to win the hearts and minds of those in control of
some critical levers affecting the organization's destiny, be they financial, legal, regulatory, or
resource related.
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EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:
Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and
Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.
The President’s Decision: A Role-Play. p. 161-164. Time: 35-50 minutes or more.
Purpose: To explore the effects of different types of leadership styles on group members.
Path-Goal Leadership: The Pat Howard Role Play. p. 145-151.
Time: 45 minutes per round (second round optional), plus 15 minutes for discussion.
Purpose: To determine what leadership styles are most effective with different
subordinates.
CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
NORMAN BRINKER AND BRINKER INTERNATIONAL
1. In what ways is Norman Brinker a manager? In what ways is he a leader?
A manager controls complexity; a leader creates meaningful organizational changes. In
controlling complexity, a manager focuses on (a) planning and budgeting, (b) organizing and
staffing, and (c) controlling and problem solving. In creating meaningful organizational
change, a leader (a) sets a direction for the organization, (b) aligns people with that direction
through communication, and (c) motivates people to action through empowerment and basic
need gratification.
The information in the case provides more evidence of Norman Brinker as a leader than
Norman Brinker as a manager. However, the fact that Brinker has headed several successful
ventures in the highly competitive restaurant industry indicates that he has given attention to
planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, and controlling and problem solving.
Norman Brinker as a leader is demonstrated through the following evidence:
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
Brinker believes that “winners attract winners.”
Brinker says, “The people I’ve been able to attract over the years are terrific
individuals. They want to do better. And the success is contagious.”
Brinker is “driven by integrity, teamwork, passion, and an unwavering
commitment to making sure each and every guest has an enjoyable dining
experience.”
All of these examples relate to the leadership activities of setting direction and aligning
people.
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2. Describe the kind of followership that Norman Brinker has attempted to develop at Brinker
International.
The most plausible answer is that Norman Brinker sought to develop Brinker International
into a business composed of effective followers. According to the text, effective followers
share four characteristics:
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


They practice self-management and self-responsibility.
They are committed to the organization as well as to a principle, purpose, or
person other than themselves.
They invest in their own competence and professionalism and focus their
energy to have maximum impact.
They are credible, courageous, and honest.
In terms of the first characteristic, Brinker’s statement that “winners attract winners” suggests
that he wants to have take-charge followers who are ambitious and want to succeed.
Additionally, Brinker observed, “The people I’ve been able to attract over the years are
terrific individuals. They want to do better. And the success is contagious.” This also
indicates that Brinker has sought responsible, self-starters. Support for the second and third
characteristics is found in the following statements by or about Norman Brinker: (a) He is
“driven by integrity, teamwork, passion, and an unwavering commitment to making sure each
and every guest has an enjoyable dining experience.” (b) Through example and personal
involvement, Norman Brinker has promoted an ethical organizational culture where people
respect one another and work collaboratively in seeking to provide excellent meals and
excellent service. The fourth characteristic is demonstrated by Norman Brinker being
“widely regarded as one of the most influential chain builders in food service history,” by his
willingness to accept the challenges associated with starting new restaurant chains (and being
successful at it), and by being integrity-driven.
3. What skills would you personally need to develop to become a leader like Norman Brinker?
What could you do to develop or refine those skills?
Discussion of this question should build upon the suggested solution to question (1). The
suggested response to this question revolves around setting direction and aligning people.
The students should consider what they would need to do in order to be effective at
establishing direction for an organization and getting the organization’s members to
enthusiastically support and work toward realizing the established direction. Students could
consider their skills at setting a direction and aligning people in the context of a club or
student organization to which they belong. In this situational context, the students should also
discuss what specific activities they could undertake in order to develop or refine their
direction setting and/or people alignment skills.
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4. What do you think is the most important leadership lesson in this case? Explain your answer.
Two different, though related, approaches could be used for promoting discussion of this
question. One approach builds on the suggested solution for question (1). Specific examples
of Brinker’s leadership activities are cited, and these may be used to foster a discussion of
lessons about leadership. The other approach uses the suggested solution for question (2) as a
point of departure for the discussion. Here the focus is on what Brinker does to ensure that he
has effective followers. In using either approach, the students should explore in some detail
the reasons why they consider a particular leadership lesson to be the most important one.
They should also consider the reasons for relegating specific leadership lessons to a less
important status.
Role Plays
Additional roleplays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.