Lexis, Morphology & Semantics
for English Language Teaching
Exploration of semantic operations 4:
Metaphor & Metonymy
Exploration of semantic operations
x 4 lectures
Interrelationship between denotation,
connotation & collocation
Analysis of lexical sets, semantic fields & sense
relations
Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy & meronymy
Common conceptions of English semantic
operations among Chinese-speaking learners
Exploration of semantic operations 4
• Metaphor
– as sense relation?
– as semantic transfer
• as comparison / substitution
• as creation of new semantic fields
• as cognitive mapping
– metaphor based on body parts
– construing metaphors
• UP-DOWN
• LIFE AS A JOURNEY
– idioms as dead metaphors
• Metonymy
– nature of metonymy
– metonymic patterns
– metonymy vs metaphor
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
metaphor =?= a sense relation;
a relation between words
that makes the words mean
(i.e. that makes the words make sense);
a relation that makes the
words meaningful …
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(pointing at the setting sun in the sky, speaking English)
? …the salted (duck-)egg yolk …
Sense relations between the lexemes
“(duck-egg) yolk” and “sun”??
(pointing at the setting sun in the sky, speaking Cantonese)
… haam daan-wong …
(salty
egg-yolk)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
single- / multi- “word”
lex-emes
(in the mental lexicon)
lexis / vocabulary
(all the words and their relations)
word forms
(spoken and/or written)
word concepts /
senses / meanings
(? and functions ?)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
free / bound
morph-emes
(in the mental lexicon)
morphology
(all the word-parts & their relations)
word-part (morph) forms
(spoken and/or written)
word-part concepts /
senses / meanings
Exploration of semantic operations 4
sense relations
(in the mental lexicon)
semantics
word forms
(spoken and/or written)
word concepts /
senses / meanings
Exploration of semantic operations 4
(in the mental lexicon)
lexis
morphology
semantics
word forms
(spoken and/or written)
word concepts /
senses / meanings
The meaning systems of English words 2
Lexicology
(the mental lexicon)
morphology
lexical
semantics
word
structure
word
meaning
lexicography
etymology
dictionary
compilation
(vocabulary)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(pointing at the setting sun in the sky, speaking English)
? …the salted (duck-)egg yolk …
Sense relations between the lexemes
“(duck-egg) yolk” and “sun”??
(pointing at the setting sun in the sky, speaking Cantonese)
… haam daan-wong …
(salty
egg-yolk)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(ordering breakfast in English)
…fried eggs, sunny side up …
Sense relations between the lexemes
“egg” and “sun”??
(ordering breakfast in Cantonese, in Hong Kong)
… taai-yeung daan …
(sun
egg)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(pointing at a little girl)
She’s an ugly duckling. Don’t
underestimate her potential.
(pointing to a little duck)
This duckling is ugly. Pick
another one.
? This duckling is ugly. Don’t
underestimate her potential.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(pointing at a little girl)
She’s an ugly duckling. Don’t
underestimate her potential.
Sense relations between the lexemes
“ugly duckling” and “potential”??
(pointing to a little duck)
? This duckling is ugly. Don’t
underestimate her potential.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(referring to two people)
They met, and fell
for each other.
? They met, and fell on each other.
Sense relations between the lexemes
“fall” and “fall for” ??
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as sense relation??
(referring to two people)
They met, and fell in love.
? They met, and fell in the river.
Sense relations between the lexemes
“love” and “river”??
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as semantic transfer (I)
(an atomistic view)
Metaphor as comparison / substitution:
– metaphor is the transference of the
meaning of expression-X to expression-Y;
– the metaphorical meaning of expression-Y
is the literal meaning of expression-X.
Compare metaphor with simile:
My dog is a pig = My dog is like a pig
Y
transference
X
(simile)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as semantic transfer (II)
(a more structural-ist view)
Metaphor as creation / trigger of new
semantic fields:
– a metaphor is the introduction of meaning
elements from an originating semantic field
A into a newly selected semantic field B;
– the metaphorical meaning of expression-Y
in the newly selected semantic field B is the
original meaning of expression-X in the
originating semantic field A.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphor as semantic transfer (III)
(a cognitiv-ist view)
Metaphor as cognitive mapping:
- the selective use of conceptual elements
from a source domain to
(a) profile a concept in a target domain,
and
(b) re-structure / re-configure the
concepts in this target domain.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metaphors based on body parts
head a team
brainstorm ideas
face danger
twist arms
shoulder a burden
back up a claim
sit on a request
step on other people
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
Sleeper
http://www.wagerweb.com/index.cfm?page=inside-the-lines&ItlID=641
Mississippi State
“This could be a sleeper team to watch for 2005.”
(The New Testament) Ephesians 5:14
“Wake up, O sleeper, rise from the dead, and
Christ will shine on you.”
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
SCMP headlines
(Friday 01 July 2011)
•
•
•
•
•
Majority oppose polls-axe bid
Public being bypassed on by-elections
By-election plan in the balance
Shatin school sweeps A-levels
New blow for school reforms
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By.
(extract available: http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/6031_Chapter_10_O%27Brien_I_Proof_5.pdf)
ARGUMENT IS WAR
THEORIES / ARGUMENTS ARE BUILDINGS
IDEAS ARE FOOD / PEOPLE / PLANTS / MONEY, etc
UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING
LOVE IS MADNESS / MAGIC / A PATIENT , etc
WEALTH IS A HIDDEN OBJECT
SEEING IS TOUCHING
SIGNIFICANT IS BIG
LIFE IS A GAMBLING GAME
See Lakoff’s Conceptual Metaphor Homepage http://cogsci.berkeley.edu/lakoff/
for a much longer list of conceptual metaphors
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
UP-DOWN
Conscious is up; unconscious is down
Healthy is up; sick is down
Happy is up; sad is down
Good is up; bad is down
More is up; less is down
Life is up; death is down
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
Life as A Journey
Go into the 21st century
Go through three days of training
Being on the right track
Fall behind one’s work / studies
We’re just spinning our wheels
This relationship is going nowhere
The marriage is on the rocks
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
Life as A Journey
think about and/or language on
the more abstract / general
concept of:
LIFE
in terms of
the more concrete / specific
idea of:
a JOURNEY
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
Life as A Journey
Adapted from: Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. OUP, p.3
http://www.amazon.com/Metaphor-Practical-Introduction-Zolt%C3%A1n-K%C3%B6vecses/dp/0195145119#reader_0195145119
[ Accessed 01 July 2011 ]
People might say that they try to give their children an education
so they will get a good start in life. If their children act out, they
hope that they are just going through a stage and that they will
get over it. Parents hope that their children won’t be burdened
with financial worries or ill health and, if they face such
difficulties, that they will be able to overcome them. Parents
hope that their children will have a long life span and that they
will go far in life. But they also know that their children, as all
mortals, will reach the end of the road.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
conceptual metaphor: LIFE IS A JOURNEY
Adapted from: Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. OUP, p.3
http://www.amazon.com/Metaphor-Practical-Introduction-Zolt%C3%A1n-K%C3%B6vecses/dp/0195145119#reader_0195145119
[ Accessed 01 July 2011 ]
metaphorical linguistic expressions:
… to be without direction …
… to be where one wants to be (in life)
… to be at a crossroad …
… to go places …
… not to let anyone get in one’s way
… to go through a lot in life
… … been there (done that) …
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
conceptual metaphor: ARGUMENT IS WAR
Adapted from: Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. OUP, p.5
http://www.amazon.com/Metaphor-Practical-Introduction-Zolt%C3%A1n-K%C3%B6vecses/dp/0195145119#reader_0195145119
[ Accessed 01 July 2011 ]
metaphorical linguistic expressions:
… a claim / argument as indefensible
… to attack weak points in an argument
… a criticism as right on target
… to demolish an argument
… to win an argument
… to shoot down an argument
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
conceptual metaphor:
THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS
Adapted from: Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. OUP, p.5.
http://www.amazon.com/Metaphor-Practical-Introduction-Zolt%C3%A1n-K%C3%B6vecses/dp/0195145119#reader_0195145119
[ Accessed 01 July 2011 ]
metaphorical linguistic expressions:
… the foundation of a theory
… to support / buttress a theory
… to construct / build a theory
… a theory stands / falls
… the framework of a theory
… the structure of a theory
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
conceptual metaphor: IDEAS ARE FOOD
Adapted from: Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. OUP, p.5 & p.18
http://www.amazon.com/Metaphor-Practical-Introduction-Zolt%C3%A1n-K%C3%B6vecses/dp/0195145119#reader_0195145119
[ Accessed 01 July 2011 ]
metaphorical linguistic expressions:
… raw facts, half-baked theories
… warmed-over ideas, watered-down ideas
… to digest the concepts
… to swallow a claim / an accusation
… to devour a story / book
… to cook up a story
… food for thought; recipe for success
… let an idea simmer on the back burner
Exploration of semantic operations 4
construing metaphors
“a language” as metaphorS
... a language IS A TOOL
... to PICK UP a language
… to ACQUIRE / HAVE a language
… the words IN a language
… a language CONTAINS words / rules
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Idioms as “dead metaphors”
let sleeping dogs lie
? let sleeping cats lie
let the cat out of the bag
? let the dog out of the bag
barking up the wrong tree
? barking up the wrong lamppost
why keep a dog & bark yourself?
? why keep a cat & meow yourself?
Exploration of semantic operations 4
3 types of conceptual metaphor
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980/2003) Metaphors We Live By.
1.structural metaphors
-- map (aspects of) one structure onto another,
e.g. My brain is running slow.
2. orientational metaphors
-- map (a set of oppositional) spatial features
onto a concept, e.g. The economy is going up.
3. ontological metaphors
-- map an abstract entity onto some basic
objects or experience, e.g. IDEAS ARE FOOD; TIME
IS MONEY.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymy
the chaps on
the factory floor
the management upstairs
the typists in the pool (typing pool)
the box in
the corner
10 Downing Street
the White House
the Pentagon
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymy
seal the lips
tighten the belt
the hands are tied
hot under the collar
many mouths to feed
the arm / back of the chair
the head of the bed
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymy
the kettle is boiling
the blanket is warm
the cake is burning
the car is losing control
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Nature of metonymy
Metonymy as substitution by:
• contiguity
• connection
• proximity
• literal association
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic patterns
part for whole
I see some new faces in this room.
We have more bums to fill the seats.
I need more hands for the job.
(Cantonese in HK) Add a pair of chopsticks for dinner.
whole for part
The newspapers yesterday said …
I live in Kowloon.
Please fill up the car with lead-free petrol.
Let us use the library.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic patterns
place for institution
Beijing likes what Macau is doing.
Washington will issue a statement soon.
Hong Kong closed up, but London opened down.
Hollywood isn’t very creative lately.
institution for the people in it
The university does this very carefully.
The market ignores the rumour.
LegCo debated on the issue.
The People’s Liberation Army was friendly to us.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic patterns
container for contained
Sample the bottles to identify the flavours.
The kettle is boiling.
Room 101 is complaining about the mini-bar.
The mini-bus jumped the red light.
controller for controlled
Napoleon lost the battle in Waterloo.
Bill Gate will partner with Samsung Electronics.
Bush bombed Iraq.
.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic patterns
possessor for possessed
I’m in the phone directory.
(Someone’s mobile phone rings.) That’s me.
We’re parked round the corner.
producer for produced
Let’s eat McDonald’s.
Shakespeare is on the Intranet.
You should hoover the carpet now.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic patterns
part for whole
whole for part
place for institution
institution for people
container for contained
controller for controlled
possessor for possessed
producer for produced
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymy vs Metaphor
Metonymic operation:
– is a process based on perceived contiguity
or connection;
– takes place in one and the same
conceptual domain.
vs
Metaphoric operation:
– is a process based on perceived similarity
or resemblances;
– takes place across two or more
conceptual domains.
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymy & Metaphor
Metonymy & metaphor as:
• forming a continuum rather than
distinct entities
Metonymy as:
• subject to fewer conceptual
constraints
• more difficult to pin down (or
account for) conceptually
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic or Metaphoric
literal vs non-literal meaning
HK = Hong Kong
( Pearl of the Orient =?= PotO )
NY = New York City
( the Big Apple =?= TBA )
Paris
( the City of Lights =?= TCL )
Exploration of semantic operations 4
Metonymic or Metaphoric
orange (in colour) vs green (inexperienced)
red-blooded vs blue-blooded
hot-blooded vs cold-blooded
(in HK Chinese)
wong-gum
(yellow gold)
vs
zi-hei
(purple air)
gum-yu gai (goldfish street) in Mongkok
wu-gwai gai (turtle street)
Exploration of semantic operations 4
• Metaphor
– as sense relation?
– as semantic transfer
• as comparison / substitution
• as creation / trigger of new semantic fields
• as cognitive mapping
– metaphor based on body parts
– construing metaphors
• UP-DOWN
• LIFE AS A JOURNEY
– idioms as dead metaphors
• Metonymy
– nature of metonymy
– metonymic patterns
– metonymy vs metaphor