Perceptions and attitudes of the Dutch language situation by non-linguists
Chloé Lybaert
Chloe.Lybaert@ugent.be
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Johan De Caluwe

1. Introduction
– The Dutch language situation
• Dutch = pluricentric language
• Focus on Flanders = Dutch-speaking part of Belgium
• Standardization in Flanders during the 20th century: written language: strongly standardized
 spoken language: lack of standardization & strong diversity
• Focus on the spoken language, esp. on tussentaal
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– Tussentaal
• Tussentaal (TT) = lit. “in-between-language”
= that spoken language use of some Flemish people which is neither ‘Standard Dutch’, nor is it purely dialectical: it is something in between (Jaspers 2001, p. 129-130) .
– Features from Standard Dutch (SD) and Dutch dialects (DIA).
– Continuum of varieties of TT in between SD and DIA
• Diaglossic language situation (Auer 2005)
DIA Tussentaal
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SD
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– Tussentaal
• Many publications on tussentaal (TT):
– In spontaneous conversations, soaps, commercials, etc. (De Caluwe 2009; Van Gijsel et al. 2008).
– Studies based on the Spoken Dutch Corpus (e.g.
Plevoets 2008)
 General consensus: increasing use of TT (TT)
• But: TT is not a new phenomenon
– Language characteristics of TT have always existed
(Willemyns 2005)
– New: change in the intentions of the speakers?
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– Tussentaal
Change in the intentions of the speakers?
– Formerly: TT seen as an attempt to speak Standard Dutch
• intermediate stage
• cf. interlanguage in second language acquisition (Beheydt 1993,
Geeraerts 1999).
• TT as the highest attainable level!
– Hypothesis: now in addition, TT with no intention of speaking SD
• Language used at home (replacement of dialect) (De Caluwe 2000)
• Hypocorrect language: “deliberately more careless use of language by highly educated people” (Plevoets 2009, p. 5)
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– Tussentaal
Consequences of this hypothesis?
 Now different types of TT alongside one another
• TT as interlanguage
• TT as home language
• TT as hypocorrect language
 TT considered as a thread to Standard Dutch cf. debate about TT in Flanders:
• Wrong intentions of the speakers
• No attempt to speak Standard Dutch
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– Research question
This hypothesis still remains largely uninvestigated
• Perceptions and intentions of Flemish language users are still underexposed (De Caluwe 2009)
• Linguists project their knowledge and perceptions on linguistic lays (De Caluwe 2009: 9):
Supposing that the average language user in general, and young people in particular, perceive and value the current variation of dialectical, regiolectical, standard and English forms differently from language specialists, the future of
Dutch in Flanders might be quite different from what
specialists think and hope [my translation, CL].
Here: perceptions of linguistic lays = centre of attention!
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• Debate on TT against the background of the Flemish
history of standardization:
– 19th-20th century: dominance of French in Flanders

Flemish opposition, esp. by the Flemish Movement
• = a political movement for emancipation and greater autonomy of the Belgian region of Flanders, for protection of the Dutch language, and for the over-all protection of Flemish culture and history
• Internal conflict: Integrationists vs. particularists
• Take-over of the Dutch language as it is spoken in the Netherlands
– Strong climate of standardization in Flanders.
– 1950 – 1980: Hyperstandardization (Van Hoof & Jaspers
2012)
=> Language use in Flanders strongly ideologized!
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3. Spoken language use in Flanders
• Standardization of spoken Dutch in Flanders:
– Formal spoken language bears close resemblance to spoken language in the Netherlands
• BUT: hardly ever spoken in reality
• “Sunday suit” (Geeraerts 2001)
– Room for an informal spoken SD? (De Caluwe 2009)
• Informal SD closely resembles formal SD
• Standard = too high
 Hardly ever spoken
 Use of an umgangssprache instead
 Use of tussentaal
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3. Spoken language use in Flanders
– Area of tension between TT and SD
– What is the status of Standard Dutch?
• cf. European research network Standard Language
Ideology in Contemporary Europe (SLICE)
• 2 possible scenario’s
– Destandardization (Fairclough 1992): abandoning the standard language ideal
– Demoticization (Mattheier 1997): incorporation of variation
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3. Spoken language use in Flanders
– Destandardization: standard language vacuum
(Grondelaers et al. 2011)
• Imported norm hardly ever used
• No replacement
– Demoticization (Plevoets 2008):
• Expansion of the norm, incorporation of tussentaal
• Standard Dutch with a formal and informal pole
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3. Spoken language use in Flanders

[T]here is an equally problematic absence of perception data, pertaining to lay evaluations of ongoing change […] it is essential to find out what untrained members of the speech community think and feel about norm relaxations such as audible regional accents in the standard
(Grondelaers & Van Hout 2011, p. 201).
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Macro variation
Lack of research data on
perceptions and attitudes of the average language user:
• “a general folk theory of language” (Preston 2002)
• Perception of the Flemish language situation
• Knowledge on tussentaal
• Attitudes towards regional variation in Standard Dutch
TOPIC OF TODAY
Micro variation
Lack of research data on the
salience of language features
WORK IN PROGRESS
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• 80 informants – spoken interview – 7 audio fragments
• Conversation about the fragments and about language use in Flanders in general
• Conversation about linguistic features
• Reported perceptions and attitudes are central: language
regard (Preston 2010)
• Questions:
– Introductory question: How would you describe the Dutch language situation to someone who has never been to Belgium?
– Questions on language use in the audio fragments
• Which language is spoken in this fragment?
• On which features do you base your judgment?
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• 7 fragments containing natural language use
• Source: The Spoken Dutch Corpus (only spontaneous conversations and interviews)
• Fragments spoken in Standard Dutch or
Tussentaal (from diverse regions)
– Fragments spoken in TT:
• Pronunciation: SD, but with a regional accent (cf. tertiary dialect characteristics (Rys & Taeldeman 2007) )
• Some morphological and syntactical dialecticisms
• Vocabulary = informal, but no dialect vocabulary
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•
– Constant factors:
• Educational level: high
• Mother tongue: Dutch
– Independent variables:
• Age: °1988-1991 & °1961-1970
• Regional distribution: East-Flanders, West-Flanders,
Brabant (= Antwerpen & Vlaams-Brabant) & Limburg
• Sex: male/female
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Edu. level High
Birth year
Sex
Region
N°: 80
1961-1970 1988-1991
B O
V
M
W
V
L B O
V
V
W
V
L B O
V
M
W
V
L B O
V
V
W
V
L
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
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•
What do the informants say about the Flemish language situation?
•
•
– Reflecting on language for the first time?
– Other view on language (not an inferior view!)
– Other vocabulary (+ terminology does not always cover the same ground)
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•
•
– Linguistics: semantics (vb. Lakoff 1987)
• Furniture: chair vs. table/bed
– Here: “cognitive sociolinguistics” (vb. Kristiansen
2008, Geeraerts 2010)
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Prototypical SD
• Language characteristics:
– Full articulation of words
– No dialect vocabulary
– No regional accent
=> Clearly understandable language
• Area of use:
– The national station, teachers (of
Dutch) & politicians
– Always useable, esp. in formal situations
• Mostly asks a lot of effort from the speakers
• Normative ring: polished speech, correct speech, etc.
Prototypical DIA
• Language characteristics:
– Dialect vocabulary
– Regional pronunciation
=> Hard to understand: strong regional differences
• Area of use:
– Regional language use
– Informal language use
– Often used by older people
• No effort
• Normative ring: “plat” (coarse language)
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Prototypical SD
OVMJ1: ja da’s al AN vind ‘k INT: ja en
waaraan herken je dat dan? OVMJ1: alles alles deftig uitgesproken INT: ja
OVMJ1: geen dialectwoorden bijna
OVMJ2: da’s duidelijk AN INT: ja en is ’t duidelijk uit welke regio de spreker
komt? OVMJ2: ‘k zou ’t echt niet weten ze spreekt echt wel heel AN
OVMJ5: pff ja der wordt vanalles gesproken hé natuurlijk maar ge kunt wel bij iedereen overweg met standaardtaal
INT: dus wat wordt er dan gesproken?
vooral dialect? LMJ2: via ik vind het vooral veel dialect er zijn maar weinig mensen die echt correct AN spreken
INT: ja LMJ2: enkel volgens mij maar op het VRT-nieuws ofzo
Prototypical DIA
INT: ja ja en waarom vind je dat dan
dialect of BMJ5: ja ja ik zeg het euh ze gebruikt bepaalde woorden die niet overal voorkomen INT: ja BMJ5: en ja die klanken die intonatie da’s echt wel euh
LVO3: ja de dialecten hé INT: ja ja en LVO3: per regio en per bijna per dorp bijna hebde een ander dialect
INT: ja en euhm in welke situaties is dat
gepast? WVVJ5: euh in een informele situatie INT: ja en wat vind je zelf van
dat taalgebruik? WVVJ5: euhm ja als ’t informeel is dan vind ik dat dat zeker mag INT: ja WVVJ5: maar en zeker
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Is a regional accent allowed in (less prototypical)
Standard Dutch?
• 13/80: Unclear
– Not/hardly mentioned during the interview
– (apparently ?) contradictory statements of one informant
• 23/80: Regional accent unacceptable
– Regional accent: approximation of SD, attempt to speak
SD, etc.
• 11/80: Slight accent acceptable
• 33/80: Accent acceptable
– Not necessarily tolerant towards all accents
– Often a case of not being able to speak without an accent
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Strong variation in how tussentaal is recognised and named:
• All the informants recognise language use in between
SD & DIA
…but many still have a bipolar/diglossic model.
• 25/80 knows and uses the term tussentaal or
Verkavelingsvlaams
(= language spoken on real estates):
– Usually described with reference to SD and the dialects
– Not really SD, not really DIA
– In-between-language, mixture
– According to some: TT as an attempt to speak SD
– Gradations of TT
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– Other informants:
• Other term (not tussentaal):
– Regiolect
– Spreektaal (= Spoken language)
– Omgangstaal (=umgangssprache)
– Vlaams (= Flemish)
– Gekuist dialect (=Polished dialect)
– Vertrouwenstaal (= confidential language)
• Description (cf. descriptions of the term tussentaal) => further research required
=> Not everyone knows and recognises tussentaal because they have learnt about it at school! Also spontaneous recognition!
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•
– Prototypical conception of SD & DIA
– Diverse attitudes towards accent variation in SD
– Recognition of in-between-language
• Different ways of describing in-between-language: TT, other terminology or description
• Reference to SD and DIA
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