Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Thanks, Bill, but that is definitely
NOT the correct way to do
psychological research. With
that point in mind, we are going
to learn about how
psychologists conduct research.
Many of you may have learned
some of the information I will
now present in other classes.
You still need to pay attention.
HOOAH!!!
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
And, my big brother, will
now review two examples
of studies he placed on his
website last summer as
models of how he wanted
your projects done.
The Attention Span
Experiment
A more sophisticated
attention span experiment
Now linked to website:
http://psimonciniohs.net/APPsych
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
And, my big brother, will
now review two examples
of studies he placed on his
website last summer as
models of how he wanted
your projects done.
The Attention Span
Experiment
A more sophisticated
attention span experiment
Now linked to website:
http://psimonciniohs.net/APPsych
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Having made the previous
point, let’s now look at general
research techniques.
Thanks, Abby. We are going to
continue to discuss the scientific
method. Many of you may have
learned some of the information
I will present in other classes.
You still need to pay attention.
HOOAH!!!
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Hello. I am a typical scientist. Can
anyone tell me what psychologists
seek to do—you know, what are the
goals of psychology?
Describe
Explain
Predict
Influence
Weto
I need
From
He
ismy
psychologists
control his
observations,
I
cantankerous
predict what
behavior
in
would
describe
people
will
because
he is
helpful
ways;
think
or
feeland
inas
Simoncini
old,
bald
so
I
will
various
old,
bald
and
ugly.
advise
him to
situations.
So,
get
cognitive
cantankerous.
if Simoncini
does
not get
behavioral
therapy,
he
therapy
and
may
go off
accept
histhe
deep
end
and
middle
age
dye what is left
ofwoes.
his hair
blonde.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
In doing their jobs, to ensure
accuracy, psychologists use the
scientific method.
Question
A hypothesis
is an
educated
guess. It is a
researcher’s
prediction
about the
expected
results of a
study.
Hypothesis A theory is usually
a complex
explanation
Controlled test based on findings
from many
experiments.
Gather data
Analyze results
Theory
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
The first type of research we
shall discuss is the
experiment.
The experiment is the most
powerful analytic tool used in
science.
 Cause-and-effect relationships can be established
only through the use of wellcontrolled experiments.
 Remember, most researchers
begin by doing background
reading.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
The first term I want you to
explain is “operational
definitions.”
Operational definitions are
specific descriptions of concepts
involving the conditions of a
scientific study. Operational
definitions are stated in terms of
how the concepts are to be
measured or what operations are
being employed to produce them.
Precise operational definitions are requirements for
psychological experiments.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
We shall now discuss variables. What
are they?
Conditions and behaviors that are subject
to change.
Independent Variable
Experimenters manipulate so they can
observe its effects.
Dependent Variable
The measured outcome of a study; the
responses of the subjects in a study
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
To ensure you understand operational
definitions
and variables,
let’s doofan inWhat
is the operational
definition
class exercise.
the dependent
variable?
A researcher compared the effectiveness of massed versus
distributed practice in preparing for a memory test. Each of two
groups memorized the definitions of 40 vocabulary words. In
group A, there were 30 participants who were all under 25 years
of age. Participants in group A used the method of distributed
practice, studying for 30 minutes on each of four evenings. They
were tested on the 5th morning at 7:00 A.M. In group B, there
were 30 participants who were all over 60 years of age.
Participants in group B used the method of massed practice,
studying only from 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M. on the evening before
the test. They were tested the next morning at 7:00 A.M. All
participants completed a recall test. The test measured how
quickly participants recalled the definitions. The results showed
that the mean difference between the distributed practice group
and the massed practice group was statistically significant. The
researcher provided a list of the names and test scores for each
individual participant in a letter to all participants.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
AsThe
a follow-on
operational
question,
definitions
what of
words
the in
dependent
the scenario
variable
indicate
werethat
a combination
the study
conducted
of “speed
was
and
anaccuracy.”
experiment?
A researcher compared the effectiveness of massed versus
distributed practice in preparing for a memory test. Each of two
groups memorized the definitions of 40 vocabulary words. In
group A, there were 30 participants who were all under 25 years
of age. Participants in group A used the method of distributed
practice, studying
for 30 minutes on each
of four evenings. They
Cause
Effect
were tested on the 5th morning at 7:00 A.M. In group B, there
were 30 participants who were all over 60 years of age.
Participants in group B used the method of massed practice,
studying only from 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M. on the evening before
the test. They were tested the next morning at 7:00 A.M. All
participants completed a recall test. The test measured how
quickly participants recalled the definitions. The results showed
that the mean difference between the distributed practice group
and the massed practice group was statistically significant. The
researcher provided a list of the names and test scores for each
individual participant in a letter to all participants.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Here are examples of independent
and dependent variables that I used
in the previously-discussed
psychology experiment I did back
when I had this goatee.
The attention experiment
Independent variable: the television
Experimental group: on
Control group: off
Dependent variable: the outcome
of the experiment—how each
group did on the test (operational
definition)
Experimental group
Exposed to the independent variable.
Control group
Not exposed to the
independent variable
Necessary in all
experiments
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Designing Psychological experiments
Basic inquiry (Question)—background reading
Hypothesis
Establish variables
Independent, dependent, extraneous
Extraneous (confounding): anything
that differs between the control &
experimental group besides the
independent variable
Ensure you have controls
Select your samples
Begin the experiment
Solomon Asch’s Experiment
Conformity Experiment
Subject asked to match one of
three lines to a “standard line;”
the answer was obvious
Standard Line
Comparison
Lines
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Boys
NBG
BG
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Samples
Test a relatively
small group of
the population.
“What do
Mustang J. V.
cheerleaders
think about. . .”
Disclaimer: note most “blondes” in the below
photo are, in reality, fake blondes.
Representative— Note: random sampling means that
avoid bias
all members of the population have
Deliberate
Random
selection
an equal chance of being selected
Sample
Every third
only cheerleader
blondes
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
The group being sampled is referred to as the
sample.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Correlational Studies
Relationship between two sets
of observations (or variables).
Correlation
Republican/Democrat = politicians
Correlational Studies
Determining the relationship between two variables
Data can have a positive correlation, a negative
correlation or no correlation (more later in chapter)
Example: researchers, through a scientific study, find
that there is a significant, positive correlation between
the amount of daily aerobic exercise students get and
their grades. What is a justifiable conclusion they can
draw from that data?
Conclusion: students who earn good grades tend to
get more aerobic exercise than those who do not.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Surveys
Most practical way to
gather data on the
attitudes, beliefs, and
experiences of large
numbers of people.
Interviews, questionnaires, combination
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Surveys
Question: What is the best technique for
teaching high school students?
Hypothesis: Simoncini’s technique is the
best
Questionnaire
10-20 respondents
Demographic section
Proof questions section
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Questionnaire
Demographics
Gender: Male
Female
Age/year in school: 9
10
11
12
Ethnic background: Latino, Afr. Am, Cauc,
Asian, Other
Classes taught by Simoncini:
Cum. GPA <2.0 2.0-3.0
1
3.1-4.0
Simoncini’s teaching method is boring.
Strongly
Agree Not Disagree
Agree
Sure
2
3
>4.0
Strongly
Disagree
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Simoncini truly cares about his students.
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the
courses he teaches.
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Simoncini has no control over his students.
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.”
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Naturalistic Observation
Circumstances
in which the
subjects of the
experiment are
not conscious
that they are part
of an experiment.
Naturalistic
observations have far
fewer controlled
conditions.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Here is a homework project.
1. Engage in a naturalistic observation
activity.
2. Spend 15-30 minutes in some type
of eating venue (cafeteria, fast food
restaurant, fancy eatery, or family meal.)
3. Be as unobtrusive as possible.
4. Record the various types of behavior
demonstrated by the people you observe.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Aloha! Before we go over
Question 14, we need to discuss
a term not in the textbook.
Case study
A case study is a descriptive, exploratory or explanatory
analysis of a person, group or event. An explanatory
case study is used to explore causation in order to find
underlying principles. Case studies may be
prospective (in which criteria are established and cases
fitting the criteria are included as they become
available) or retrospective (in which criteria are
established for selecting cases from historical records
for inclusion in the study). Question 14 pertains to
different types of case studies.
Longitudinal studies
Study the same group at regular intervals over a
period of years to determine if their behavior or
feelings have changed and, if so, how.
Example:
study the 2015
Oakdale
Distinguished
Young Women
contestants every
2 years until 2035
to determine if the
friendships they
made have
continued.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Longitudinal studies
Advantages: study the same
group throughout the study.
Example: Newcomb’s
Bennington College study.
Disadvantages:
Lengthy and costly
Participants who drop out during the course
of the study may be different in important
ways from the ones who do not drop out.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Cross-Sectional Studies
People are organized into groups that are cross-sections
of the population. Then the groups are randomly
sampled and the members of each group
are surveyed, tested, or observed
simultaneously. Less accurate than
longitudinal studies.
Example: age cross-sections
Middle-Aged
Teenagers
Young Adults
Elderly
Cohort-sequential study—better data
Take a cross section of the population, then
follow each cohort or group for a short period.
Less susceptible to bias; more accurate data
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
All right! So you boneheads
think you know the types of
psychological research. Let’s
do a little quiz for fun to see
how much you know.
Consider the following list.
Case histories; naturalistic
observations; laboratory
observations; surveys; tests;
correlational studies; and
experiments. Match the
correct one to each of the
following.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Here they are again.
Case histories; naturalistic
observations; laboratory
observations; surveys; tests;
correlational studies; and
experiments.
Determining
Determining
Determiningwhy
whether
if
the
the
how
frustration
level
behavior
favorite
ateenagers
housewife
ofaeducation
person
food
causes
of subjects
behave
gave
ofisadolescents
is
aggression
introverted
associated
upon
who
a their
areor
flourishing
extroverted
with
anxious
first crime
dates
about
career
participating in research
Personal Bias
A person’s beliefs, preferences,
assumptions or prejudices
Often not obvious to the individual
(Robert Guthrie’s Even the Rat
was White)
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
There are always potential pitfalls
in research—pitfalls that you
must try to avoid.
Expectancy Bias also known as
self-fulfilling prophecies
Sometimes your expectations about the results
of an experiment are so great, that you might
inadvertently do things that skew the results.
Two types of experiments used
to avoid self-fulfilling prophesies
are single-blind and double blind
experiments.
Single-blind: participants are
unaware of which participants
received the treatment and which
ones received the placebo.
Double-blind: neither the experimenter nor the
participants know which participants received the
treatment.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
No problem, Julianne! We
professors like serious students.
Here is the Ethics Cascade
1. Who should decide what is
morally justifiable in the
conduct of research?
2. Are controlled research studies
ever necessary or appropriate?
3. Should all research have a
foreseeable practical benefit?
4. At whom should research be
directed?
5. What specific topics are worthy
of research?
6. What particular research methodologies are scientifically valid,
as well as ethically appropriate?
7. Of the valid methods, which
should be used?
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Here are some additional important
ethics guidelines not found in the
textbook but specified by the
American Psychological
Association.
 Participation in a research study
must be voluntary
 Research may involve deception;
however, people deceived must
be debriefed at the conclusion of
the study
 Participants must be informed of
potential risks
 Participants must be offered
alternative activities if research
participation is a course
requirement
 Participants’ right to privacy must
be protected
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Earlier we did an in-class
exercise in which we responded
to one part of one of the two
essay prompts on the 2013
national test. To reinforce what
we have learned thus far let’s
now do an in-class exercise
responding to the remaining
parts of that prompt.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Having completed that exercise
in groups, I’ll now pass out
another one that is a—oh
noooooo—homework
assignment. It was one of the
two essay prompts on the 2014
national test.
Theodore Newcomb and the Bennington
College experiment
Can norms of a liberal campus
have a greater influence than
family traditions and attitudes?
Yes
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Operational Definitions
By reading the question’s or statement’s wording
one knows what various terms mean within the
context of the study
Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the
courses he teaches.
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Simoncini has no control over his students.
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.”
Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly
Agree
Sure
Disagree
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Hey, I’m a math nerd, so I love this
next part. We shall now discuss
statistics.
Frequency Distribution
Way of arranging
data so we know
how often a particular
score or observation
occurs. One way to
depict data: a
histogram
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
B o ys
N o r G irls
B lo nde s
1s t T e s t
2 nd T e s t
3 rd T e s t
4th T est
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Central Tendency
Describes something about the average
score. Mode Most frequent score
Can be skewed:
Median Middle score
A few extreme
scores can
Mean Sum of all scores
have a
divided by total
number of scores disproportionate
effect—pulls
M=
X/N
mean toward
the extreme
4 + 8 + 5 + 10 + 2 + 9 =
score
38/6=6.33
Measures of variance (variability)
Provide an index of how spread out the
scores of a distribution are.
Range
Subtract lowest score from the highest
score—simplest measure of variance
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Standard Deviation
A measure of distance, describing an
average distance of every score to the
mean. The larger the standard deviation,
the more spread out the scores are.
1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, 2.50
4, 7, 11, 16, 20
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Standard Deviation
The 68, 95, 99.7 rule
(+1SD)(+2SD)
(+3SD)
68% of all scores: 1
SD + or –
95% of all
scores: 2 SD+/-
Situation: test has a mean of 70 and a SD of 10
What percentage of testers scored 60 or above?
34%
-1SD
2.25%
-3SD
13.5%
-2SD
50
60
50
70
34%
+1SD
60 points + 34%
+34% + 13.5% +
2.25% = 83.75% or
84%
13.5%
+2SD
80
90
2.25%
+3SD
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
At this point I want to add another
important term: statistical inference.
Generalizing from a particular sample to an entire
population. For example, a researcher asks only
OHS freshmen about the feasibility of having a
closed campus. When the majority of those
boneheads say it’s a good idea, the researcher
concludes that most students favor a closed
campus.
Correlation
Relationship between two sets
of observations or variables.
I wonder if you can
draw a correlation
between cumulative
gpa’s and scores on
this next test?
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Three possible correlations: Positive
Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5
>4.0
3.5-4
3-3.49
2.5-2.99
2-2.49
<2.0
Test Sc.
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Three possible correlations: Negative
Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5
>4.0
3.5-4
3-3.49
2.5-2.99
2-2.49
<2.0
Test Sc.
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
Three possible correlations: No Correlation
Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5
>4.0
3.5-4
3-3.49
2.5-2.99
2-2.49
<2.0
Test Sc.
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research
The correlation coefficient helps
tell precisely the type of
relationship there is between
scores.
High scores on both
variables: positive
correlation and correlation
coefficient; high scores on one variable and low
scores on the other: negative correlation and
negative coefficient.
The higher the number, the stronger the link;
score of 0 = no consistent relationship between
scores
OK, you people. For next class,
be sure to bring your summer
work projects. Some of you are
going to present them to the class
and critique your methodology,
based on what you read in the
textbook.
Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research