Virtue Ethics
A summary of Virtue (arete) Ethics; based
on the work of Aristotle and the current
resurgence in popularity.
What the specification says you need to know;
 Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics.
 Eudaimonia.
 Golden Mean.
 Revival. (A. MacIntyre and others)
 Criticisms & Usefulness.
Renewed popularity in Virtue Ethics
• Virtue Ethics, was developed in the late
1950s, but was made fashionable in the
1970s and 80s by Foot, P. (Virtues & Vices
1978), MacIntyre, A. (After Virtue 1981),
and Taylor, R. (Ethics, Faith & Reason 1985).
• The movement was a reaction against
Utilitarianism and Kantianism. Virtue Ethics
emphasises BEING, rather than DOING.
• Virtue Ethics often points to ‘good people’
as examples – Socrates, Jesus, Martin
Luther King, Mother Teresa, Nelson
Mandela etc
The basis of Virtue Ethics in Aristotle
• Oldest normative tradition in Western
philosophy, its roots in ancient Greek
civilisation
• Most influential account presented by
Aristotle in his book Nicomachean Ethics.
“Every craft and every enquiry, and similarly
every action and project, seems to aim at some
good; hence the good has been well defined as
that at which everything aims.”
• GOOD is defined in terms of the purpose
or aim to which someone is moving, these
aims can therefore be numerous.
Clearly not all aims are going to be
good, so Aristotle establishes what he
calls the Supreme Good to which we
aim - EUDAIMONIA (‘Happiness’)
• He is concerned with goodness as HAPPINESS
and the type of lifestyle that will lead to
achieving happiness.
• Eudaimonia is crudely translated as ‘happiness’;
a later interpretation is ‘flourishing’ - being
successful.
• This difficulty in the translation leads to some
problems in establishing meaning.
Where does happiness (Eudaimonia)
as a final aim or ‘good’ come from?
1.
Aristotle proposed that all things in the
universe have a cause and move towards a
purpose (acorns to humans). Mans purpose
involves something that distinguishes him from
other species, RATIONAL BEHAVIOUR.
2. Happiness is something chosen for its own sake,
a final end, not as a means to something else.
Happiness is chosen for its own sake and not in
order to achieve something else.
Note: this does not define ‘happiness’.
‘GOLDEN MEAN’ - Virtues are the mean
between extremes of behaviour and the way
to achieve Eudaimonia / happiness.
• Example - courage is the mean between cowardice and
foolhardiness.
• In response to the natural emotion of fear, we should
develop the virtuous character trait of courage. If we
develop an excessive character trait by conquering
fear too much, then we are said to be rash, which is a
vice. If, on the other extreme, we develop a deficient
character trait by conquering fear too little, then we
are said to be cowardly, which is also a vice.
• Aristotle: it is difficult to live the virtuous life because it
is often difficult to find the mean between extremes.
What is it to be virtuous?
• To call someone virtuous is to refer to their
disposition (how they would behave in a given
situation) and NOT the state they are in.
• In other words, it is inaccurate to say ‘he is
in a virtuous state’, but correct to say ‘he is
acting virtuously’.
• This is useful because it means he is no less
virtuous when asleep, or at other times when
he is not exercising the virtues. He is still
disposed to be virtuous when he is in a
position to be but does not have to maintain
a permanent state of ‘virtue’.
Summary of introduction
• "virtue" (arete) = excellence in fulfillment of a
particular function
• Virtues can only exist within a social or political
setting making this a political issue.
• "happiness" (eudaimonia) = a sense of wellbeing, resulting from achieving excellence in
the fulfillment of one's functions, including the
"species-specific" functions of reason (both
theoretical and practical). Developing ones
virtues.
• Virtuous behaviour involves following the mean
between extremes.
Virtue Ethics – the theory
• Virtue theory is the view that the foundation of
morality is in the development of good
character traits, or virtues, not good acts.
• A person is good, then, if he has virtues and
lacks vices.
• Typical virtues include courage, temperance,
justice, prudence, fortitude, liberality, and
truthfulness.
• Some virtue theorists mention as many as 100
virtuous character traits which contribute to
making someone a good person.
Aristotle’s different types of virtue
INTELLECTUAL
E.g., wisdom, technical skills
MORAL 12 (in total)
E.g., Compassion, courage, temperance
• These are abilities • These are learnt through ‘living’
partly built into the
them, habit, because they are
part of the irrational / desiring
individual, also learnt
self.
through teaching.
They are part of the • Virtues are something we acquire
and NOT things we are born with.
rational self and so
There is not inherent ‘good’ or
can be instructed.
‘bad’, simply habits we develop.
• Once lived by, the virtues become
THE CARDINAL
part of our character and no
VIRTUES
longer an effort.
Prudence, Justice,
Analogy: with adopting a healthy
Fortitude &
diet and lifestyle.
Temperance.
• Virtue theory places special emphasis on moral
education since virtuous character traits are
developed in one's youth; adults, therefore, are
responsible for instilling virtues in the young.
• Practice - moral virtues must be lived out and
become habitual. Aristotle compares practicing
the virtues to practicing any other skill, you will
become more advanced though practice.
• The failure to properly develop virtuous
character traits will result in the acquiring
vices, or bad character traits instead. Vices
include cowardice, insensibility, injustice, and
vanity.
The Revival – G. E. M. Anscombe ’58;
‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ (article)
• Attacked Utilitarian and Kantian moral rules
and obligations. She criticised them for looking
at ‘action rather than character’. Good persons
do good deeds, good deeds don’t make a good
person.
• The only reason to keep laws is if there is a lawenforcer (judge, rewarder & punisher). A GOD.
• Whether the ethical theory explicitly involves
God or not, law following is nonsense.
• She emphasises human ‘flourishing’, Eudaimonia,
as the best approach. This is not dependent on
God.
The Revival – Philippa Foot ’78;
‘Virtues & Vices’ (article)
• Focused more on the positive reasons for
adopting Virtue Ethics.
• Our desires are the root of moral action and the
desire for goodness comes before doing good
deeds. Train to be good and the rest follows.
• Virtue Ethics does not guarantee happiness but
is significant in working towards it.
• She addresses the problem of ‘whom should we
admire more?’; the naturally virtuous or those
that work harder for it.
• Reminds readers of the long, respected heritage
of this theory – in Aristotle, Aquinas, Kant…
The Revival –
Alasdair MacIntyre ‘81; ‘After
Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory’ (book)
• Observes a moral vacuum that we are now in which began
after 18th century enlightenment, i.e., Hume. We
emphasise the wrong virtues e.g., wealth, excitement,
convenience.
• MacIntyre made wider criticisms about the detached
nature of philosophy from reality, e.g., meta-ethical
debate. Narrow, too focussed on reason rather than
people and real lives.
• Looks at virtues historically, over time and how we should
reflect on their use i.e., Homeric virtues such as courage,
physical strength, friendship…and Athenian virtues
especially Aristotelian. Medieval virtues.
• He refers back to the work of Aristotle. “..attempts to
resurrect Aristotelian thinking about the virtues..”
(Vardy & Grosch)
• A moral society is one where people recognise
commonly held virtues and aspire to meet them.
This approach combats aspiring for personal
gain. Examples include army regiments, religious
orders.
• Essence of virtue = doing things for their own
sake.
• Critics suggest that too much faith is placed in
history by MacIntyre.
• In response to critics of Virtue Ethics
MacIntyre simply states that it is the…”…best
theory so far…adherents are rationally
entitled to a high measure of confidence in its
epistemological and moral resources.” (After
Virtue)
The Revival – Richard Taylor ’85;
‘Ethics, Faith and reason’ (book)
• Shows how Western ethics has been distorted,
corrupted and rendered unusable Christianity.
• Reason is essential for ethics but has been
replaced by ‘faith’ and ‘divine-command’.
• Greek and Christian ethics are not only different
in method, but have different goals. Personal
development Vs a concept of right & wrong.
• Criticises Christian concept of equality as
preventing us from trying to better ourselves.
• Reply: This is a general not moral equality and
Jesus spoke out against the vices in favour the
virtues.
Summary of the theory
• Aim = Eudaimonia – good-life, well being, happiness,
flourishing…
• The emphasis is on the dispositions, motivations and
emotions of the individual, rather than on the action,
doing one’s duty, obligation or consequence.
What someone IS rather than what someone DOES.
• Virtues are acquired by doing them. Practice, which
is an individuals responsibility. Every moment gives
an opportunity to acquire and develop virtues.
• It is about aspiring to be an ‘ideal person’ –a
character-based ethical approach, best understood
by looking to a good example. Aristotle said the best
way to learn was to follow our idea of the ‘ideal type’
of virtue or observe real examples of virtuous
people e.g. Mother Theresa, Gandhi...
Advantages / Strengths
• Emphasises the personal side of ethics, its
‘spiritual’ nature – motives, dispositions, feelings.
• Considers the whole community – Aristotle’s
Supreme Happiness is for the community not
just the individual.
• It is inspiring and idealistic, but not unrealistic
as it points to real examples of what to achieve
and how to achieve it.
• Fits in well with other ethical systems – religious
e.g., Christianity and secular e.g., Humanism.
• Simple to understand and apply.
Disadvantages / Weaknesses
• It is difficult to define virtues and difficult to
really know what the virtuous person would do in a
given situation = impractical (R. Louden ’84)
• Some virtues may clash in a situation.
• It sometimes ignores actions and consequences.
• The practical problem is that as societies change, so
does our idea of virtue.
• People who may lack the virtues can still perform
moral actions. And the virtuous are not always moral.
• The ‘Golden Mean’.
- Unclear exactly where the mean lies.
- Not all virtues are at the mid point between
extremes, they are simply good in themselves
(MacIntyre)
• William Frankena – cannot realistically separate
virtue from rules & principles. Can characterise
most virtues in terms of a sense of duty.
• Self-centred. Actions are chosen to benefit
ones own character not other people involved.
• ‘Being’ and ‘Doing’ cannot be separated in terms
of the former having priority. Cannot ‘be’ brave
without ‘doing’ it.
• Susan Wolf – become a virtuous person is an
unattractive prospect because they are likely to
become boring! There is no room for hobbies,
flamboyant characters, etc…The virtues
themselves should be practiced in moderation
Reply: Louis Pojman dullness is a price worth
paying for saintliness.
Exam Questions
A01
(a) Explain how the idea of the ‘Golden
Mean’ is used in Virtue Ethics. [33]
(a) Explain the theory of Virtue Ethics. [33]
A02
(b) ‘Virtue ethics is an easy system to put
into practice.’ Discuss. [17]
(b) ‘The world would be a boring place if everyone in
it were virtuous’ Discuss. [17]
(a) Explain the theory of Virtue Ethics. [33] A01
Guidelines:
• Outline main principles of Virtue Ethics.
• Refer to Aristotle & modern views especially
MacIntyre.
(b) ‘The world would be a boring place if
everyone in it were virtuous’ Discuss. [17] A02
Guidelines:
• Assess weather virtue ethics is boring or not.
• Refer to real examples of virtuous people.
• Suggest why it might be worth it, even if you
conclude it is dull.