Political Philosophy
Political obligation and the origin of the state
• The concept of “State” or “relationships of power” finds its
formal origins in ancient Greece.
• Homeric hill forts developed into large City States (Polis) such
as Sparta and Athens.
• Athens was the most influential and has long been regarded as
the cradle of democracy.
• Athens operated a “direct” democracy where all free male
citizens (50,000) were eligible to vote. Women, slaves and
foreigners were excluded.
• Out of this period also emerged the foundations of western
philosophy. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all attempted to
answer the question at the heart of political philosophy and
ethics: “how should we live?”
• NB most democratic countries operate a representative
system e.g. UK where the electorate vote for an MP to
represent them in parliament. The party with the most MPs
usually forms the government. Contrast can also be made
between 1st past the post systems (UK) and Proportional
Representation (Ireland).
Plato (423BCE-347BCE)
• Key Work: The Republic
• Ideology: Autocracy – rule of the
philosopher king, an enlightened
dictator. Plato is famously
scathing of alternative systems,
particularly the Athenian
democracy. The philosopher
ruler has authority to rule due to
his genius and training. His
perfect alignment with the truth
(forms) renders him infallible.
• Quotes: "There will be no end to
the troubles of states, or indeed of
humanity itself, till philosophers
become kings in this world, or till
those we now call kings and
rulers really and truly become
philosophers."
Plato’s Critique of Democracy
• Simile of the ship – “The crew are all quarrelling with each
other about how to navigate the ship, each thinking he ought to
be at the helm; they have never learned the art of navigation.”
(critique authority in a democracy)
• Simile of the large and powerful animal – “But he would not
know which of the creature’s tastes or desires was admirable or
shameful; he would simply use the term on the basis of its
reactions, calling what pleased it good, what annoyed it bad.”
(critique of the failure of the state to provide for the needs of
the people in a democracy)
Aristotle (384BCE-322BCE)
• Key Work: the Politics
• Ideology: a virtuous monarchy is the highest form
of government – he lists 6 types: 3 true
(Monarchy, Aristocracy & Polity) & 3 perverted
(Tyranny, Oligarchy & Democracy). True states
aim at virtue; perverted ones aim at personal
power and wealth. The Polis (state) is held to be
the highest source of ethical authority, but
participation in politics is restricted to male land
owners. Only they have the time to develop the
virtues and, thus, rightly have authority over
those who are “naturally inferior”. The family unit
is considered the bedrock of a stable society, as
is compliance with the law and acceptance of the
status quo – in this sense he provides a
foundation for conservative principles.
• Quotes: "Man is by nature a political animal."
• “Man perfected by society is the best of all
animals; he is the most terrible of all when he
lives without law, and without justice.”
Christian politics
• Following the Edict of Milan (313CE), Christians were
faced with the need to become politicised. Church and
State were conjoined and Christians had to address
questions concerning how should respond to the
government and what they should do in the face of
foreign aggression.
• Many chose to withdraw from public life, believing that
it could only serve to corrupt.
• In his book “The City of God” Augustine argues that
human beings cannot be fulfilled merely by living in
the Polis.
• Augustine claims that the government ought to be
obeyed and that Citizens should fight in just wars, but
that Christians should focus beyond this life to
“God’s eternal kingdom”.
Scholastic perspectives
• Scholastic philosophers such as
Aquinas challenged the divine right of
Kings. A ruler deemed unjust and
failing in his duties could be rightfully
overthrown.
• Aquinas advocated the natural law
theory, which states that humans can
discover God’s will via use of reason.
This supersedes the authority of Kings
(e.g. of legitimate opposition to
authority)
• “. . . this is the first precept of the law,
that good is to be done and promoted,
and evil is to be avoided. All other
precepts of the natural law are based
on this . . .”
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
• Key Work: The Prince
• Ideology: in contrast to Plato, Aristotle,
Aquinas and others, Machiavelli does not
offer an ideology, rather he gives practical
advice on how to obtain and preserve
power. His seminal work is directed to new
Princes, not hereditary ones, who will have to
establish means to protect their position. It
would be wrong, however, to assume that
Machiavelli would sanction all manner of evil
doing to achieve his ends. Cruel actions are
instrumental to the preservation of power and
must not be employed beyond what is
necessary to achieve this objective.
• Quotes: "He who establishes a tyranny and
does not kill Brutus, and he who establishes
a democratic regime and does not kill the
sons of Brutus, will not last long."
• “…it is much safer for a prince to be feared
than loved”
Social Contract theory
• Under SCT, people give up some/all rights to a
government and/or other authority in order to preserve
social order & allow enrichment.
• Advocates of SCT include Plato, Mariana, Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau and Rawls.
• Agreement to the terms of the contract may be explicit
(formal, individual approval), tacit (inferred from actions or
statements) or hypothetical (based on our imagined
reaction to the state of nature)
• Plato: members implicitly agree to the terms of the social
contract by their choice to stay within the society (tacit
agreement) – Socrates goes to his death on this principle.
• NB SCT can be viewed as a means of justifying
obedience to the law and the authority behind it.
Bentham against Social Contract Theory
• In his Fragment on Government
(1776), Jeremy Bentham attacks
Social Contract Theories on the
basis that they rely on historical
inaccuracy.
• There has never been a state of
nature as described by Hobbes et
al and such fiction has been used
to support the submission of the
masses and the legitimacy of
monarchic government.
• As previously mentioned, the
contract theorist’s reply to such an
attack is that ideas referring to “the
state of nature” are hypothetical.
It is to be understood as a
concept, not an historical event.
Utilitarian theories of government
• David Hume first devised the idea of utilitarian
systems of government.
• He claimed that governments were necessary, but that
their justification is founded on their ability to produce
a greater happiness than would be found without
them.
• Bentham popularised Utilitarianism, claiming that it is
the system best suited to dealing with man’s innate
selfishness – we are fundamentally driven by a
desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• Mill modifies Bentham’s model, adding a distinction
between quality of and quantity of pleasure.
J S Mill’s Utilitarianism
• Pinchin observes that Mill identifies 3
important questions in political philosophy:
– What authority exists for the good of the people?
– What process enables obedience?
– How can abuses of the authority be checked?
• In answer to all three, Mill believes that
representative democracy provides the best
response – this is favoured over direct
democracy, which he saw as inefficient. Such a
system would involve and empower the people:
“Let a person have nothing to do for his country
and he will not care for it.” He also believes that
it offers sufficient checks on authority.
Utilitarianism & democracy
• Utilitarianism is seen as the ideological thought that
underpins democracy. The people inevitably vote for
representatives who promise to implement that which would
make them happy. The Government formed by a majority is
thus elected on a utilitarian mandate.
• Here also Mill’s paternalism is evident - highly educated,
middle-class professionals are better suited to rule than the
majority of the public who are ill-informed and easily
manipulated.
• Yet, it is difficult to see how such a group could be said to
represent the majority!
• Mill recognises this, but argues that participation in local
government and institutions such as jury service will aid
participation.
• Incidentally, Mill also argued that Utilitarianism would be
favoured by God - who wishes that man be fulfilled.
Modifying Bentham
• In Utilitarianism (1863), Mill
famously modifies Bentham’s
model in order to combat the
problem of “the tyranny of the
majority” – under Bentham’s
quantitive model, the abuse of the
minority is seemingly acceptable
as long as it pleased the majority –
e.g. of the sadistic guards etc.
• That the minority could be
suppressed in such a way is
obviously unacceptable to Mill’s
Liberal credentials. Consequently,
he offers a qualitative model of
utility.
Mill’s alternative
• Bentham had claimed that “pushpin
is equal to poetry”.
• Mill disagreed, arguing that
pleasures of the intellect are higher
than base, physical pleasures.
Thus, Opera is considered higher
than billiards.
• Under this model, Utilitarianism
appears less democratic and more
elitist.
• We can obviously question why
intellectual pleasures ought to be
considered superior to physical ones.
• Such emphasis would also seem to
run contrary to Mill’s Liberal
principles.
"It is better to be Socrates
dissatisfied than a pig
satisfied."
[Utilitarianism]
Utilitarianism and distributive justice
• If politics is centred around the principle of utility, then
this will presumably demand a more egalitarian
focus. How can the greatest happiness principle be
fulfilled when so few have so much and economic
polarisation continues to grow unhindered?
• Yet, to assume that utilitarianism would run contrary to
such inequality would be to ignore the role that
capitalism plays in generating wealth and driving up
the standard of living for all.
• Mill and Nozick both believed that economic freedom
was an essential ingredient in bringing about higher
standards of living.
Ideologies
Conservatism
• Conservatives are
distinguished by their
resistance to change,
support for the free market
economy, their faith in
tradition and established
institutions, a
paternalistic view of the
state (positive freedom)
that is born of a negative
diagnosis of human
nature, a commitment to
the rule of law and
advocacy of a legal
positivism. (draw breath)
Oh…and a love of
attractive fillies and foxes!
Edmund Burke
Hybrid cartoon! – French
revolution, with some
contemporary political comment!
• Key work: Reflections on the
Revolution in France
• Ideology: Conservative. The
outbreak of the French
Revolution in 1789 gave Burke
his greatest target. Burke
emphasized the dangers of
mob rule, fearing that the
Revolution's fervor was
destroying French society. He
appealed to the British virtues
of continuity, tradition, rank
and property and opposed the
Revolution to the end of his life.
He is justly regarded as one of
the founders of the British
Conservative tradition.
Burke Quotes
• “Better be despised for too
anxious apprehensions,
than ruined by too confident
security.”
• “Good order is the
foundation of all things.”
• “All that is necessary for the
triumph of evil is that good
men do nothing.”
Epistemological scepticism
• Burke’s conservatism is based on the belief that we
cannot know all aspects of society.
• No one individual (or indeed, collective) has sufficient
wisdom to surpass that which has been accumulated
to create society as it is.
• Consequently, we can never justify wholesale change
- rebellion is always to be discouraged. Change is
acceptable, but only on a small scale that enables
preservation of society.
• There are obvious problems with a system that is not
prepared to accept the need to overhaul a brutal and
oppressive regime. Anything would seem to be
preferable to living under a dictator such as Pol Pot.
Open and Closed Societies
• Burke advocates the closed society. This is a society
where everyone knows their place (authoritarian and
hierarchical). As Pinchin puts it “Your obligations
follow from your agreed status; they are not
questioned.”
• In contrast, an open society is open to change. All
authority must be justified and there is freedom to
challenge. Unlike in the closed society, fact and value
are considered distinct.
• Burke saw considerable danger in the open society.
He feared the individualism that it breeds and
believed that it would lead to chaos and moral
vacuity.
Organic society
• Burke viewed society as a living
organism that slowly evolves.
• Identity is defined by its history
which provides a rich array of
traditions, customs and laws.
• To interfere with the institutions
that have grown out of society is to
damage something of innate value.
• This theme has been restated by
Michael Oakeshott (Rationalism in
Politics, 1962) – “…our traditions
and inherited institutions contain
more wisdom than we do.”
Law
• The rule of law is central to Burke’s conservative ideal.
• Freedom is wholly dependent on the law.
• Without law, anarchy reigns and freedom to
participate in society is destroyed.
• Burke saw anarchy as creating a political environment
where might is right – those who have the greatest
physical strength will suppress the weak.
• Man must be subject to a central narrative that is
defined by the law and historic institutions.
• The law is inextricably linked to human history. To
abolish it would be to abandon that which defines us.
We would be cast adrift without a moral rudder(!)
Rights
• Rights are defined in terms of our place in the system.
• There can be no claim to “natural rights” other than
those that have evolved in society.
• Any definition of “rights” outside society is dismissed
as “intellectual fiction”.
• Rights are deemed relative to particular societies and
will obviously differ within these societies.
Consequently, the concept of “universal rights” was
anathema to Burke.
• NB it is worth mentioning MacIntyre as another
thinker who emphasises the need for a central
narrative if society is to function on a moral level.
Challenging the “age of reason”
• Burke firmly resisted the Enlightenment idea that
reason and theory should form the base of politics.
• As Wolff observes “Burke emphasized the importance
of habits and traditions, which, although they may
not be able to withstand criticism at the bar of reason,
should not be expected to pass what he thought to be
a quite inappropriate test.”
• This scepticism concerning human nature is born of a
deep pessimism concerning human nature.
• The idea of man as a rational being is rejected – we
are driven by instinct and emotion.
• As such, man is not qualified to challenge the
institutions that have evolved out of accumulated
experience.
• Such institutions protect us from ourselves.
3 fundamental harmonies
•
Burke concedes that there may be
disagreement and even conflict within his
conservative system, but insists that these are
only “surface conflicts”. A stable and
continuous order will always contain 3
fundamental harmonies:
1. Integration of personalities
2. Harmony of different sections of society
3. Harmony of history and providence
• NB Providence is understood in a religious
sense, where individuals come to develop a
shared perspective on existential questions.
Critique
•
•
•
•
1) Too dismissive of theoretical
reason:
Burke accuses philosophers of
oversimplifying complex social
relationships and of failing to
recognise the necessary organic
nature of society.
Here, he may have a point, but he
then extends his criticism to form a
rejection of all theoretical
reasoning.
As Burke is himself offering a
theory, this would seem somewhat
hypocritical.
Further, discontent rarely emerges
out of theory (Marx makes this
point), but out of specific problems
in society.
•
•
•
•
2) Good = duration?
This appears a difficult
premise to defend.
Surely a bad/evil
society can exist for a
substantial period of
time. Duration does not
make it any more
palatable.
Pinchin uses the
example of the
Inquisition as an
established institution
that did not become any
better over time.
Mr Loach’s lessons
might be used as
another example!
Further problems
•
•
•
•
•
3) Limited moral theory:
For Burke, morality is
•
simply formed out of
tradition and custom.
It would seem that
morality involves more
•
than this.
Indeed, we may ask
•
where an act of
conscience or religious
devotion may lie in
relation to such an
•
establishment based
morality.
Burke will reply that the
Church is part of tradition •
& custom.
This assumes a symmetry •
that is unlikely to be found.
4) Inappropriate response to
conflict:
Burke would always resist
removal of an institution,
preferring gradual change to
conflict.
Yet, surely some systems are
simply intolerable?
History reveals too many
occasions when inaction has lead
to great suffering
Burke’s closed perspective
cannot respond to unexpected
circumstances as it is grounded
in immutable values.
He sees the only alternative as a
moral relativism.
In reality, the contrast between
alternatives need not be so stark.