A course on Honours College version2013 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande Activities implying social influence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Advertising Application Associating Attitude change Befriending Brainstorming Buying Caring Communication Competing Conforming Copulating Crime Crying Dating Drinking Eating Educating 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. Following Forming Hiring Hypnotizing Individual sports Kissing Laughing Law giving Leading Lying Marketing Marrying MPI Murdering Norming Panic Performing Persuading 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Resistance Resisting Scares Scoring Selling Smiling Smoking Squatting Stealing Team spirit Team sports Teen spirit Tempting The wave Another example In fact: everything in and about this page is social influence CONTENTS of the course I. Human nature and social influence – – – – – Orientation, What is social psychology? Human nature, Nature vs nurture, Formal vs. informal hierarchies, Ratio & Emotion, Ethology, Societies, Belonging vs Dominance, Power is potential influence, Power is given Question: Is non-social influence possible? II. The situation and social influence – – – Appraisal, Ecological psychology, Affordances, Reversal theory, Social Impact Theory, Social Identity theory, Question: Is it possible to be the same person over different situations? III. Leadership and social influence: Power vs Rules – – – Power and influence, Escalation, Varieties of leadership, Role of arousal, Mutuality of social influence, rules and norms Question: In which regard managers are alike to leaders and in which not? Lecture 1 Human nature and social influence Two ways of thinking and influencing part 1 Social psychology described The canon of Social Psychology is mainly the canon of Social Influence some SP quotes • ALLPORT: Social psychologists consider their science as an endeavour to understand and explain the way in which thoughts, emotions and behaviour of the individual are influenced by the real, imagined or implied presence of other human beings • MCGARTY& HASLAM:[]all people are [necessarily] amateur social psychologists. {But many people can escape being an amateur cognitive psychologist, cell biologist, economist, astronomer, sociologist or physicist.} • • Groffen: Every theory selects its own facts • Stapel: Every scientist makes his own facts • Hegel: So much the worse for the facts Grand themes in SocPsych • Approach-avoidance • Motivation, fight-flight, ethology, conflict, attraction, cohesion • Communication • Communication theory, mass comm., NV comm., lying • Decision • Ratio, bounded rationality, altruism, game theory, dilemma's, SEU, prospect theory, economic psychology, choice of partner • Image formation • Cognitive SP, prejudice, attitude theory, social representations • Imitation • Conformity, modelling, fashion, contamination, synchronisation • Power • Social influence, hierarchies, leadership, authority, control, rules, norms Characteristics of SP thinking • SP in present form: American, Production oriented, Aversive toward spirituality, Beta oriënted, Experimental So SP type thinking is characterised by: • • • • • • • • • • • Monocausality, and linear relations Either-Or thinking (critical experiments) Democracy as central value Aversive of vitalism (e.g. behaviorisme) A-poëtic and a-intellectual oriëntation (APA manual) High degree of control in way of saying things Strong conformity and susceptibility to fads Description, no prescription (comp. Andragogy) Thinking in terms of processes (not structures) Aiming for Achievement and Efficiency (Publish or perish) Admiration for clever use of statistics Three kinds of GD, Three kinds of SP 1. Scientific reserch, mostly through experiments, on behaviour in small task-groups (Triplett, 1895, Mayo, 1930, Lewin, 1940, Festinger, 1950, etc) 2. The application of the results of these studies in practice (J.Remmerswaal, Handboek Groepsdynamica) 3. The ideology that goal directedness is the core of work, that work is always work in teams, that leadership should always be democratic, that performance is always enhanced by rewards and that equity is the goal of every human being (eg ‘belief in a just world’) Part 2 Human nature Making top quality can be time consuming 5 • • • • • • • • 4 3 2 1 Earth: 5 billion years Life on earth: 3 billion years Poly-cellular: 1 billion years Vertebrates : 500 million years Mammals: 200 million years Primates: 30 million years Hominides: 2 million years Homo sapiens: 200.000 years 200 mil 100 mil 20 mil Improvement also takes much time Our model exists some 200.000 Did you know thatyears one day a were certain McDougall Of those years 198.000 before Christ will try to understand Aaah, All that time we were building up our civilisation us? fuck Quite recently, some amazing developments took off place: We developed the technical means to deplete all fossil material built up in the last 3 billion years We developed the technical means to raise average age with some 40 years We developed the technical means to combat almost every kind of disaster We developed the technical means to create disasters on an unheard of scale These means were then used by people who had the reflexes of cavemen William McDougall(1871-1938) The main instincts and emotions to McDougall • McDougall studied medicine according and physiology at the University of Cambridge and in London, and Göttingen. After teaching at 1. University Flight :College Fear London and Oxford, he was recruited by William James to Harvard University, where he served as a of psychology from 1920 to 1927. He then moved to 2. professor Avoidance ; Disgust Duke University where he remained until his death. He was a of the Royal Society. Among his students was Cyril Burt 3. Fellow Curiosity : Amazement Yet in the main I have lived hitherto the sort of life which in ( http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7KtO9iC ) my youth I judged to be the most desirable; and that perhaps is all a In 1907 I wrote my Social Psychology, which, I imagine, will be reckoned my most original contribution to psychology. It was written by man can properly demand. Even if my books are very much at invitation as a member of a projected series of semipopular scientific fault, many of their readers may books, after the style of the old international series. The other members of the series never materialized. I had no thought that it might be used as have profited in some degree a college textbook. I wrote for the general public. The genesis of the main from the intellectual effort to comprehend them. thesis of that book is, I think, of some slight interest. Lecturing one day I have done no great wrongs; in 1906, I found myself making the sweeping assertion that the energy and, as I often tell myself, it is displayed in every human activity might in principle be traced back to some inborn disposition or instinct. When I returned home I reflected that something to have done my part in bringing up a little flock this was a very sweeping generalization, one not to be found in any of the of whom I may justly be proud. books; and that, if it was true, it was very important. I set to work to And yet, was it right to apply the principle in detail, becoming more and more convinced both of bring them into existence? its truth and of its importance; and my Social Psychology emerged. Was the Buddha's teaching true? It is a deep question, and I have found no answer • Uit: Murchison A History of Psychology in Autobiography 4. Fighting : Anger • 5. Dominance : Pride 6. Child care : Love 7. Procreation : ?????? 8. Herd instinct 9. Collecting : Avarice 10. Construction Some conjectures about ‘Nature’ © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG • Nature is the underground. Culture, and thus learning, is what grows SELECTION CRITERIA BASIC CONCERNS on it. Everyone is his ownFOR gardener. Gardeners copy (≈ instinct) • Does nature provide us with Fixed Action Patterns? Common to animals and man – In lower animals often, in higher ones seldom. What is given is a possibility and Must be universalThe forrest all we human cultures (e.g. Brown, 1991)modelling and a motivation. have to acquire through playing, rehearsing. Humans moreoverand are pain great in ruminators Must give pleasure in success failure of ideas • What Must be important is this ‘motivation? for fitness – be Positive emotion when we succeed, negative when we fail (proximate) Must inborn, not acquired – be Plusflexible a good memory for experience: succes stamps in, pain stamps out Must and malleable through learning (Thorndike 1910, Law of effect) (proximate) Must occur in two forms: Earnest and Play •Must Isn’t thata ahigh resuscitation hedonism (epicurism), and thus of have degree of of generality reinforcement theory? in terms of behaviour Must be easily interpretable – Indeed, but in an evolution-theoretical context, and of wider scope •In humans: What could have been the evolutionary mechanism? (ultimate) – Animals that don’t like eating/copulating/child care/equity/hoarding or what other Must so dependable its potential that a whole andjuist basicbe concern , have less offinspring. So we allprofit descend from people who important branch of industry can be founded onother it basic concern loved eating/copulating/child care/equity/hoarding or what Man travels along two rails © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG NATURE Procreation Child care Belonging Reconnoitering Status Aggression Communication Foraging Hoarding Territoriality Hunting Building Exchange Body care Resting Migration Play CULTURE RELATIONS, EDUCATION, PEDAGOGICS FORMS OF SOCIETY, STATES, UNIONS IDEALS, VALUES, EVALUATIONS HEROES, MYTHS, FAIRY TALES GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, JURIDICAL SYSTEM, ARGUMENTATION, RHETORICS RULES, NORMS, CUSTOMS, FOLKLORE, LAWS SCIENCE, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, RATIONALITY, ECONOMICS WARFARE, FORTIFICATION LANGUAGE, POETRY, NOVELS, FILM EATING, DRINKING, GOURMANDISE, WINE, FESTIVALS, CAFE’S TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, APPARATUS, WEAPONS, MAGIC ART, BUILDINGS, ORNAMENTATION TRADE, BANKING, ADMINISTRATING CLOTHING, COSMETICS, BATHING IMMIGRATION, VACATION GAMES, SPORTS, CHESS, THEATRE COMPUTERGAMING Procreation •© 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • In animals: partner choice, making nest, lair, territorium, courtship, mating • In humans: falling in love, Romance novels, 50 shades of gray, saving for trousseau, jealousy, Visiting cafes or festivals, rape, poetry, popmusic, giving presents, dressing up, using axe, make up, stalking, pornography, prostitution, breast enlargement, dating • In game-form: playing doctor, playing dad & mom, priest & pupil, scoutmaster & boy scout, kinky sex, SM games • Societal consequences: marriage, blackmail, sexindustry, sex in advertising, on TV and Film, sex in popindustry, sex as reward (corruption) • Regulation by culture: very strong Status © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG • In animals: Dominance hierarchy, Tournaments, Fights, Signalling systems • In humans: Ambition, Competition, Respect, Obedience, Mercedes, Apple, Armani, Gucci, Aristocracy, Outdo the neighbours, Mobbing, Power struggle, Arrogance, Body building, Breast implants, Conspicuous consumption, Jewellery, Skyboxes, Platforms and moreover: a lot of JEALOUSY • As play: All competitions: football, hockey, bridge, golf, Alpinism, Championships, Political debates, Board games, Coma drinking • Societal consequences: Hierarchies, Monarchy, Rat race, Competitive society, Status symbols, Status industry, Sports, Top 10/50/100 etc, Lists, High and Low culture, Differentiation in neighbourhoods, schools & universities, Honours college • Regulation by culture: Informal: hardly; Formal: strong; Culture is in itself a status system Mankind is changing tracks © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG NATURE We are emotional mammals ‘Instincts’ and emotions Weak impulse control Narcism is an illness Slow development SOCIETY: Gemeinschaft Need to belong Group goals Rules for behaviour Duty; Honour; Tradition Conservative; Stability Religion; Magic Charismatic leadership STRONG TIES In crisis: Cohesion & cooperation up Improvisation Fight/flight CULTURE We are rational thinkers Norms & Values Cost-Benefit analysis Narcism is normal Quick planning SOCIETY: Gesellschaft Need for freedom Goals are individualistic Fashions for behaviour Freedom; Money; Change Progressive; Dynamic Ideology; Science Transactional leadership WEAK TIES In crisis: Cohesion & cooperation down Planning & priorities Professionalism ASSIGNMENT I © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • WRITE A SHORT ESSAY and hand it to me next time – The subject is: Influences in the life of a student • First step: Tomorrow gather data – Tomorrow you must take note every hour at exactly XX:00 hours, what influence attempts you have undergone that hour and which you exerted – Note whether it was physical or social • Second step: Saturday do some analysis • How many of each kind? • Is there a daily trend? • How sure are you of the reliability and validity of your data? • Third step: Sunday write a paper – of about 678 words ;-), consisting of • a) a beginning • b) a middle part and • c) an ending (Aristotle, ca 350 bC) εσχατον Lecture 2 Human nature and social influence II Assignment1 GENERAL REMARKS TRENDS:Not many looked at ‘trends’. The idea is easily pooh poohed. PERIOD: 2 people took several days instead of 1 Doumon did, moreover he noticed that the assignment is a blaring example of SI !!! SITUATION:Ellen Verbeek remarked a relation with interaction. More Social infl in Social situations. SI: Rieza Aprianto makes difference between primary (work, eating etc)and secondary activities (wellbeing) PHYSICAL/SOCIAL is difficult opposition. Better physical/psychological or Individual/social. No one remarked that habits may come to life through SI, but do not necessarily work as SI. UNITS OF OBS: Problem in observations is the size of the unities observed: Shopping or taking something from the shelf. Sports or calling: Here that ball! INTERPRETATION: Many forget to remark that observations do not give facts, but interpretations of facts. REL & VAL:Reliability is whether you can repeat the measurement with the same result Validity is whether the measurement tells you something you wanted to know (eg. Counting the ticking of the clock instead of the pulse) How TO make an index for that is rather COMPLEX GENERALIZING: Generalisability is a related concept, meaning whether the conclusions drawn from the study have a wider applicability outside the situation in which you did your study REPORTING: Only some give their observations in a table. Only half gives clear comments on their observations (without showing them) Part 3 Ratio and emotion What is rationality? • A means of being one up on nature. • The better an animal was able to learn and to draw conclusions from it, the better its chance of survival • Categorisation of what happens to us helps enormously in remembering • Ratio to an important degree is nothing but categorizing and then operating with those categories. Conceptual thinking • Decision making is imputed goal of ratio, but... • It is strongly influenced by conditioning: 95% of our behaviour is Habitual • It is strongly influenced by emotion: many decisions are taken on a subconscious level, thus before elaboration of cognitions has taken place What is emotion? • A means of being one with nature. • The better an animal was in feeling emotions and acting on them, the better its chance of survival • Categorisation of what happens to us helps in feeling the right emotion • Emotion can be seen as a means to prepare the individual for action • Emotion is strongly influenced by conditioning: 95% of our behaviour is Habitual • Sometimes we like control, sometimes sensation A common factor: Trust © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Trust is a feeling, but could also be the result of rational assessment (But, think of jealousy or paranoia) • Trust is present when people have the conviction of shared interests • The base can be natural, like in a Gemeinschaft, or cultural, like in a Gesellschaft • Natural bases are: Kinship, Common ancestry or belongingness, Common fate (war!), Friendship • Cultural bases are: Morality, Charity, Religion, Cost-Benefit analysis, Fear of consequences, Respect for law (but, think of democracy: organized distrust) Humans and Apes The social animal I • Man is a social animal, thus great importance of – – – – Groups (membership/reference; primary/secondary) Sense of belonging (to family, friends, society etc.) Communication (Style, source, credibility) Norms and rules – (Once borders of ‘Normal’ are passed, stopping is difficult) – Knowing when and how to rule, knowing when and how to obey: STATUS • Man is a rational and flexible animal and thus – He easily accepts a replacement as the real thing (the mother and the mouse trap) • E.g. Nescafe, Twitter, drugs, prostitution, TV, canned vegs, cell phone communication, botox Rationality, the big difference © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Is mainly important in Prescriptive (Normative) models • So rationality is more a question of OUGHT than of IS • What is Rationality? – The goal of decisionmakers is to maximize own outcome – Decisionmakers know for which period they plan – Decisionmakers know the utilities of all possible outcomes, and are able to compare them – Decisionmakers are fully aware of the relevant rules and possibilities of the situation and know the odds • This is NEVER the case. But, even if not perfect, it helps in outwitting dumber ones (the lion and the Nikes) • We call this ‘bounded rationality’ (Simon, 1955) • Thus: the smarter the animal, the better its survival chance Emotion, the big commonality (MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences p273) • An emotion is a psychological state or process that functions in the management of goals. • It is typically elicited by evaluating an event as relevant to a goal; it is positive when the goal is advanced, negative when the goal is impeded. • The core of an emotion is readiness to act in a certain way (Frijda 1986); it is an urgency, or prioritisation, of some goals and plans rather than others. • Emotions can interrupt ongoing action; also they prioritise certain kinds of social interaction, prompting, for instance cooperation or conflict. CONCLUSIONS © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • We share Human nature with our animal brethren – This gives us drive and emotions • Humans moreover have inherited enormous cognitive capabilities – This gives us flexibility and enormously increased learning capacity – This makes that the play-period is much longer than in other species • These two aspects reflect themselves in societies • Societies are impossible without Social influence – In Gemeinschaft-like societies SI is often exerted for group purposes – In Gesellschaft-like societies typically for individual purposes • SI has many forms: modelling, leadership, imitation, norms, rules, laws, threats, identification etc. • People differ in the way they react on their surroundings – Pigs as well! Part 4 Belonging vs Excelling The social animal II © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • The basic concern to Belong tells us that we must stick to our group, and, if needed, search new groups • If we live in a Gemeinschaft it is mostly sticking to, and that forever. In a Gesellschaft it is more search and change • The basic concern of Dominance tells us that we must try to get one up on our fellow beings • Nevertheless we also are very good in submission • If we live in a Gemeinschaft we must submit to an often harsh ruler: The a. In a Gesellschaft we are much more free, e.g. in changing jobs or partners or friends. But we often function in a formal hierarchy. • There’s a catch somewhere. Where? The catch © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG • Being social (friendly, adaptable, empathic) is necessary to belong • But being social does not get you an position • Striving after dominance and status implies being competitive, egoistical and ruthless • But being competitive tends to drive you out of the group • In the Gemeinschaft this conflict was institutionally solved by common goals (e.g. religion) • The individual was therefore in continuous danger (eg.sacrifice) • In the Gesellschaft there is a lack of these controls • Therefore in a Gesellschaft the institutions are in danger Two kinds of dominance (Kalma, 1992) CORE GROUP S T A T U S a Soc.Dom. Aggr.Dom. PERIFERAL MEMBERS INCLUSION Formal vs Informal hierarchy Differences between F and I F Designed/≈rational Positions Externally composed Higher level decides Can be reorganised Mixed sex In- & Extrinsic rewards Many at the bottom I Evolved/≈emotional Persons Internally composed Coalition decides Stable Same sex Intrinsic rewards Only 1 at bottom fMRI: Dominance research © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Schjelderupp-Ebbe was the first to investigate dominance hierarchies • Function of this (norm) system is to get more time for other concerns • That implies that individuals are less aroused in an existing and stable dominance hierarchy than in uncertain hierarchies • This was indeed the outcome of: • Zink, Tong, Chen, Bassett, Stein & Meyer-Lindenberg (2008) Know Your Place: Neural Processing of Social Hierarchy in Humans Neuron, 58, 273-283 Power as SP sees it © 20011JP van de Sande RuG • Influence is when something acts in a way it would otherwise not have acted • P can influence O by physical or social power • Power is potential influence • If we use power it tends to wear thin • Power only works when O is susceptible to it • So power rests in the needs of the subordinate • So power is rather given than taken • Therefore democracy often works better than despotism • But not always De alpha When thinking or talking about power we are easily blinded: • • • • • • • By size By beautiful colours By impressing displays By bluffing (seeming ruthlessness) By frightening or threatening behaviour By conspicuousness By earnestness of expression Influential thinkers on Power © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG • Machiavelli (1513) Power is something you can possess. In order not to loose it drastic measures may be necessary, because they work better than the ethical correct ones • Hobbes (1651) The natural state of mankind is the “war of all against all”. To mitigate that, a strong state (Leviathan) is necessary. ‘The mitre and the sword’ • Nietzsche (1885) Man, but in fact all of nature, has a stong will to power: Wille zur Macht. Will, in this sense, is that which happens necessarily • Adler (1920) Power is the ground of all our thinking and feeling. If we feel to have not enough power we may develop an Inferiority complex. The bases of power (French & Raven, 1958) • Power must of course be founded on something. According to SP canon power bases are: – – – – – – Reward Punishment Identification Authority Expertise Information economic relation knowledge • The bases of power lie in the needs of O. (the less powerful) • Because these needs change through habitation , power wears down • Power is always reciprocal: both parties have power sources (power and counter power: The balance of Power) Kelman’s 3 kinds of influence (1958) • Compliance – Behavioral theory/Exchange theory – Impression related motives • Identification – Depth psychology – Validity seeking motives • Internalization – Cognitive Psychology – Ego defensive motives Under high pressure to conform. No pressure to conform Influence differentially appreciated 1. In some circumstances influence is very welcome: 1. When coming from friend (help, advice, support) 2. When giving advantage for self (subsidy, investment) 3. But only when both these factors are certain (trust) 2. In many circumstances influence is not welcome: 1. When coming from possible enemy 2. When involving possible cost for self 3. When situation is uncertain 3. Therefore people show Resistance to change 1. Reactance: resistance to influence attempt 2. Skepticism: doubt about the content of proposal 3. Inertia: not wanting to change Lecture 2 The situation and social influence Part 1 Appraisal of the situation Van Heck’s taxonomy of situations • • • • • • • • • • Interpersonal conflict, disasters, fights Cooperation, exchange of ideas Intimacy, relations en sexual activity Recreation, amusement, partying Travelling Rituals, religion, funerals Sports and competition Excesses (sex and booze), gambling, hypnosis House keeping, serving Buying, selling, trading Interaction between Person and Situation • Situation influences person: probabilities of behaviour change through: – – – – Possibilities and impossibilities of certain behaviours (affordances) Activating c.q. suppressing of fixed action patterns (FAPs) Generating an idea in the head of the person (‘Priming’) Contaminating the person with an emotion or an idea (eg. Contagious songs) • Person influences situation: – – – – Seeking out certain types of situations Influence the situation by conserving or changing it Look for a different situation Deny the characteristics of the situation or misperceive it HOW BEHAVIOUR IS DIRECTED PERSON habits characteristics sex, class, age education abilities character PERCEPTION of SITUATION COMFORTABLE? (LEUK) STIMULATING? CONTROL? (BANG) CHALLENGE? (SAAI) US/THEM FEELING? FORMAL? SITUATION compulsiveness of situation EMOTION RUMINATION BEHAVIOUR Appraisal Review vdSande (27 studies) Work or task oriented/SE 12 Involvement/indifferent 10 8 6 Businesslike/Emotional Friendly/Hostile 4 2 0 Good/Bad Fate control/Behavior control These 6 dimensions were used most frequently to make sense of Situations. Consequently these dimensions are important in determining the way we react on situations. Part 2 FROM HERE TO THE SLIDE ‘LECTURE 3’ THE CONTENT HAS NOT BEEN TREATED IN THE LECTURES An original vision on motivation REVERSAL THEORY (Apter, 2002) © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Humans (and animals) do not always function in the same manner, in fact differences between you today and you tomorrow may be greater than between you and me : STATES instead of TRAITS • States are Bi-stable (either one or the other) and vary along different dimensions • E.g. TELIC----PARATELIC ( telos = goal) – Sometimes we are goal directed and serious – Sometimes we look for new goals, in a playful way • Reversals between states can be frequent or infrequent: – – – – Satiation : And now for something completely different Situation : The situation elicits a reversal (eg. Sports field) Frustration : You don’t succeed, or it becomes too dangerous Imitation : Others can be highly contagious Reversal Theory (Apter, 1980) agreeable paratelic aversive telic quiet sensation Reversal Theory (Apter, 2002) © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG PLAY SERIOUS GOALS RULE CONFORM SYMPA REBEL RULES EGO ALTER TRANSACTION RELATION Part 3 Endeavours towards general theories Social Impact theory (Latane, 1981) • Law of social impact (=influence) I = f (SIN) • Or: Impact of a sender of influence is a function of Strength, Immediacy en Number • A considerbly more complicated version is: I = f a(SpIqNr) • Moreover Latane made a Dynamic variant: Consolidation (majority wins), Clustering (forming of Subgroups), Correlation (Convergence on several points) & Continuing diversity The GROUP-MIND PRO • Group mind exists : – LeBon (1895), Durkheim (1912) • Group mind result of identification: – Freud (1922) • Groups are more than the sum of parts: – Lewin (1939) • Group has personality – Cattell (1952) CONTRA • Group mind doesn’t exist; Group = sum of parts – Allport (1924) • Group mind is artefact of social identity – Reicher (1990) • Group behaviour is normal synchronised behaviour – McPhail (1992) – Social cognition Barker & Gump (1964). Under- en over- manning Also see: Ganster & Dwyer. (1995) J.Management Undermanned Overmanned 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Show strong, frequent and varied actions in carrying out goal related behaviour Act to correct inadequate behaviour of others Be reluctant to reject group members whose behaviour is inadequate Feel important, responsible and versatile as a result of their participation Be concerned about the continued maintenance of the group Be less sensitive to and evaluative of individual differences among group members Think of themselves and other group members in terms of the jobs they do rather than in terms of personality characteristics 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Perform tasks in a perfunctory, lackadaisical manner Show a high degree of task specialisation Demonstrate little concern for the quality of the group product Exert little effort in helping others in the group Feel cynical about the group and its functions Evidence low self esteem, with little sense of competence and versatility Focus on personalities and idiosyncrasies of people in the group rather than on task related matters MANAGERIALISM (Pollit, 1993; McLaughlin et al., 2001; Mawby & Worthington, 2002) • • • • • • • • • • • • • Organisations do more resemble each other than they differ Know-how is secondary. Any professional can be hired Emphasis on output and results Efficiency and growth are the magic words Development and use of performance indicators and ranking lists Emphasis on the advantages of competition If opportunity knocks, throw wide open the doors Centralisation: Self directing teams are abhorrent The citizen is seen as customer and the employee as tool (HRM) Never look backward (Henry Ford: history is bunk), always forward No interest in and knowledge of unintended consequences The ideal is central policy and local service Loyalty to group is sentimental bunk, but the image can be useful Organisations in Peace & War Training periods short Training periods long Selection on managerial capacities Selection on inspiration and enthusiasm Promotion based on avoiding Promotion based on results blame Goals short term Goals long term Democratic attitude and leadership Authoritarian attitude and leadership Concern for correct procedures “Cutting the red tape” Sanctions for relatively small Polarisation in sanctions infractions Human solutions for technical Technical solutions for human problems problems Rivalry between services Superordinate goal reduces rivalries Professionalisation Improvisation Preparation Resilience Assignment II © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG WRITE A SHORT ESSAY and hand it to me next time The subject is: Situations in the life of a student Think of 3 different situations in which you often find yourself (e.g. studying in UB, drinking with friends in pub, doing sports, shopping or whatever) Describe which rules you feel that govern your behaviour Which rules are general and which situation specific? In how far are you a different person in each of these situations? Some 621 words should do the trick. εσχατον Lecture 3 Leadership and social influence: Power vs Rules Types of social influence © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG CLASSES EXAMPLES of activities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Advertising Application Associating Attitude change Befriending Brainstorming Buying Caring Communication Competing Conforming Copulating Crime Crying Dating Drinking Eating Educating Fads Fashion Following Forming Hiring Hypnotizing Individual sports Kissing Laughing 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Law giving Leading Lying Marketing Marrying MPI Murdering Norming Panic Performing Persuading Propaganda Racism Resistance Resisting Scares Scoring Selling Smiling Smoking Squatting Stealing Team spirit Team sports Teen spirit Tempting The wave I SIGNS Physical coercion (e.g. walls, entrances etc) Physical suggestions (e.g. paths, windows) Impersonal coercion (e.g. prohibition signs) Impersonal suggestions (e.g. arrows, signs) Personal coercion (e.g. threatening, bullying) Personal suggestions (e.g. answering, smiling) II NORMS Impersonal rules (e.g. laws, codes, regulations) Impersonal norms (e.g. directions, instructions) Personal rules (e.g. directions by authority) Personal norms (e.g. manners, altruism, attire, etc.) III VALUES Impersonal moral values (e.g. equity, fairness) Impersonal values (e.g. innovation, modernity) Personal values (e.g. charity, involvement) IV POWER 6 power bases Power tactics Part 1 Influence theory applied RHETORICA © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG • ARISTOTELES (384-322 BC) • RHETORICA RESTS ON THREE PILLARS: • Ethos, logos en pathos » Correctness of principles and character (credibility) » Effectiveness and correctness of arguments (logic) » Engagement of emotions (populism) • It uses a playing field not always under control: the ‘atechnoi’ • PRATKANIS (2007, The science of Social Influence, p. 30 ff) – Credibility through Altercasting (putting self & other in certain roles): • Altercasting through: Contact, Authority, Expertise, High status, Physical attraction, Similarity, Intimacy, Responsibility, Minority, Social identity, Consensus, Modeling, Reinforcement, etc. • CIALDINI (2001) Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion Falbo’s view on power tactics RATIONAL IRRATIONAL Often towards superiors DIRECT Often by superiors INDIRECT DISCUSSION REQUEST INSTRUCTION NEGOTIATION PERSUASION SHOWING EXPERTISE CLAIMING EXPERTISE DISENGAGEMENT HINTING PUNISHING PERSISTING FAIT ACCOMPLI PRESSURE THREATENING DEMANDING MANIPULATE SUPPLICATE INGRATIATE AVOIDING EVADING How to become powerful • A good beginning is: the silver spoon, a good marriage or a good education • Everybody can become powerful (meritocracy) but you have to work for it • Others must have the idea that they profit from what you do • Initially you must show that you like the group by showing conformity. For OKP (OSM) that is relatively simple • If you don’t you will not be trusted and your achievements won’t be appreciated too • If you do, you can try to achieve. If you’re trusted that is seen as positive for the group, you will slowly gain idiosyncrasy credit (Hollander, 1971) A similar model (EST Berger, 1980) Status Charac teristics Expec tation State Opportunity to behave Behavior Evaluation Status • Observable Status-related-characteristics form beginning (appearance, relations, behavior, sex, race) • Every group member gets his own Expectation state (≈reputation) • Behavior is important > achievements (=evaluation) but also grouporientedness (=trust) • Informal status is given by colleagues, Formal status by superiors • High status members have more privileges qua unimportant rules, but demands are higher qua central rules (status liability) Personal power vs. Rules Social influence has two forms • Direct, through personal power and influence on basis of respect – Quick; Often simple tactics like threat are enough – Can be perceived as inequitable, negative and aversive: Power wears down • Indirect, through rules and impersonal influence – Slow: rules must be made and refined. They must become ‘normal’ – Are felt as equitable: if well vindicated, no wear and tear • Just like power, rules are a means of having your way • When the existing rules suit you, it becomes unnecessary to use your personal power • In the human world rules are very important, but we only notice a very small part of them, as we are ‘rule-blind’ • Humans are not very fond of the unpredictable • The more culture, the more rules (cf. Elias, The civilisation process, 1938) Part 2 Rules and conflicts How we form rules • Essentially by making an agreement (implicit or explicit) • Two kinds: – Formal (laws, contracts): Difficult to change, detrimental for trust – Informal (understanding, gentlemen’s agreement): Can be changed if trust exists • Other way of looking at norms (Cialdini, 1995) : – Norms in the form of rules (injunctive ) – Norms in the form of what others do (descriptive) – Moreover: idiosyncratic norms • If first 2 are conflicting, “the turnips are cooked” (cf. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, 2001) Agression as a‘normal’ phenomenon, a historical view TORTURE DUELLING DEATH PENALTY USE OF FIREARMS POSSESSION OF FIREARMS RAPE BEATING SPOUSE COLONIALISM FIGHTING BEATING CHILDREN RESISTANCE AGAINST STATE 1700 1800 1900 2000 Us/Them (Intergroup) conflict C EXT.ATTRIBUTION MISPERCEPTION COMPETITION O RECIPROCITY N F NEG. POWER TACTICS MORAL L I C CATEGORISATION ING- OUTG.BIAS STEREOTYPES T (DIABOLISATION) C O N F L VIRILE I COMMITMENT C COHESION IN-G-COOPERATION AROUSAL T Part 3 Leadership as influence POWER IS GIVEN not taken • • • • • • • • • To gain power one has to prove himself as trustworthy If inferiors have no trust, the powerholder will be sabotaged The impression of shared interest is central here That’s why social network is important (de Waal, 1982) Coalitions are the motor of evaluations and thus of attribution of status Evaluation of behaviour is therefore important Two aspects critical: Treatment & Social skills Power, like trust, comes on foot and leaves on horseback This means that much power is based on COMPLIANCE, some on IDENTIFICATION and a little bit on INTERNALISATION, all on the side of the followers PROBLEMSOLVING for FOLLOWERS LEADERSHIP • Leadership implies something that is being led • Is that “the organisation”? Not in a ‘Gemeinschaft’ • It is always a group of people, and the processes within this group, that are being influenced • Leading is influencing in a desired direction, but also influencing the desires • The more leading is felt to be ‘natural’ the better • • • • Two main types: Task leader & Social-emotional leader (Bales, 1950) Some leaders score high on both Other typology: Transactional & Transformational leader Last type derived from Charismatic leadership (Weber, 1922,http://www.textlog.de/7415.html) Another 2 varieties of being a leader • Visions on leadership • Hitler: to be a leader means to be able to move masses • Ho Chi Minh: to use people is like using wood. A skilled worker can make use of all kinds of wood, be it big or small, straight or crooked • Eisenhower: leadership is the ability to decide what is to be done, and then to get others to want to do it • Truman: a leader is a man who has the ability to get other people to do what thay don’t want to do, and like it • Disraeli: I must follow the people. Am I not their leader? • Ford: The question who must be the boss is like the question who will sing bass in a quartet • Bonaparte: A leader is a merchant in hope THE SUBJECTS • The leader attracts all attention, in the media, in daily life, and even in science • But we rather should look at the followers, because: POWER IS GIVEN • • • • Power rests essentially on coalitions (de Waal,1982) Many people have a talent for subordination Less people have a talent for leadership Many people find responsibility aversive (Dalrymple, 2001, Life at the bottom) • People love to identify with power and success Charismatic leadership. Freud’s vision (1921) • Basics – Man is born with the aptitude for many social mechanisms – In the Primal horde, these are seen in their purest form – Hierarchy and despotism are the rule. Love and hate for the leader occur together • Starting points – – – – Leader has special competences (practical and verbal) and fascination for an idea Leader has personal liking for his inferiors and tends to seek them out Leader has Narcistic personality Therefore leader needs constant confirmation of excellency of own self by inferiors • Development – – – – – On the basis of these competences leader gains credit Credit is seen by leader as proof that his narcistic choice was right Leader keeps gaining strength (vicious circle) Followers feel that they contributed to this growing strength Followers feel important through libidinous identification with the leader • Effects: – Leader’s wish is felt as own wish (identification) – Every follower has the idea that he has a personal relation with leader – Strong and self-willed followers get into conflict and either leave group or win Some charismatics in contact with themselves Charisma: Transformation (Bass, 1997) • No transactions, but transformation or No transactions but inspiration • Great importance of communication • Sources of influence: • • • • Idealised influence Inspirational motivation Intellectual stimulation Individualised consideration • Rather a description of aspects than a description of the process • Therefore revival of Freud’s Theory (See Goethals 2005) Part 4 Influencing publics rhetorics • • • • • • • © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG Has very long history, eg. China and India In Greece Sophists (Gorgias), later Aristoteles In Rome Seneca and Cicero In middle ages Augustinus and Scholastics During reformation Propaganda From 1900 psychology: Le Bon, Freud, Bernays Then a deluge of marketing and advertisement Truth or relativism? • Things that people believe to be real, are real in their consequences (Thomas’ dictum) Truth may exist, but we can only experience it through our senses and cognitive apparatus (Kant, 1781) Or: • Truth is therefore not a useful concept • Truth is something like a value: you should strive towards it • The experience of truth depends on many factors, of which expectation and credibility of source are only two • Important are the emotional consequences of happenings • Two emotions are paramount in deciding about truth: • Fears and Wishes Factors contributing to the impact of a message • Attention to source of message • Noise, being occupied, lost GSM, or GSM not working • Perception of message • Visibility, bad eyes, not able to read • Understanding of total message • Language, Wording, length, emotional tone, signs of danger • Integrating message in own knowledge • Evaluation of message, congruity with situation • Knowing how to behave • Having insufficient knowledge to assimilate the full meaning • Having possibility to behave • Being constrained, taking care of others, being stuck NEGATIVE FACTORS WORK STRONGER UNDER STRESS Simple model of communication © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTORTION BY PROPERTIES fact sender medium PHYSICAL DISTORTION BY NOISE receiver THE GATEKEEPER SYSTEM Mass communication mainly has an indirect effect Some people in a community are trusted by the others and thus they are influential in what is believed by the community, and what not They are the gatekeepers (Lewin, 1947) or connectors (Gladwell, The Tipping point, 2000) It is necessary and sufficient to identify them and aim your message for these people εσχατον Research and leadership © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Maaike Verbree promoveerde op 17 november 2011 aan de Vrije Universiteit. • Academisch leiderschap is cruciaal voor wetenschappelijke topprestaties. Dit blijkt uit het promotieonderzoek van Maaike Verbree, waarop ze op 17 november promoveert aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Haar onderzoek voerde ze uit bij het Rathenau Instituut, dat ook het proefschrift uitgeeft. Voorbeeld geven Verbree onderzocht hoe het academisch leiderschap van invloed is op de prestaties van onderzoeksgroepen. Het onderzoek is gebaseerd op een vragenlijst over academisch leiderschap die door ruim driehonderd onderzoeksleiders werkzaam in het academisch gezondheidsonderzoek is ingevuld. Zij wijst twee factoren aan die een positieve invloed hebben op de prestaties van onderzoeksgroepen. Leiderschap blijkt cruciaal te zijn voor topprestaties: academische leiders geven het voorbeeld door een sterke betrokkenheid te tonen en de kwaliteitsnorm te bepalen. Netwerken De andere belangrijke factor is netwerkmanagement. Hierbij gaat het om de manier waarop academische leiders hun groep positioneren in de wetenschappelijke en maatschappelijke omgeving. Ethology • • • • • © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG Darwin (1872) The expression of the emotions in men and animals Schjelderupp-Ebbe, T. (1912) Beiträge zur psychologie des haushuhns Lorenz, K. (1948) Er sprach mit dem Vieh, den Vogel und den Fischen Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct Two perspectives: Proximate en Ultimate • De Waal, F. (1982) Chimpanzee politics (partially in Google books) • Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology • For a much more thorough treatment see lectures of Koolhaas in this series Niko Tinbergen • The stickle back study • (1938) • Fixed Action Patterns THE PERSONALITY OF PIGS (Bolhuis, 2004) © 2011 JP van de Sande RuG PROACTIVE –First acting, then thinking –Enterprising –Not concerned about objections –Not easily scared –Confused when surprised –Likes stable patterns and predictability –High pressure: Overactive REACTIVE –cautious, Wait-Watch –Attentive to surroundings – Sensitive to impressions –Adroit in adapting behaviour to situation –High pressure: Freezing APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT Epstein & Fenz, 1962 STRENGTH OF MOTIVE APPROACH/FIGHT AVOIDANCE/FLIGHT DISTANCE Further readings about SI and leadership © 2006 JP van de Sande RuG • Ian Robertson (2012) The Winner Effect: How Power Affects Your Brain, London, Bloomsbury – – • Haslam, S.A, Reicher, S.D. & Platow, M.J. (2010) The new psychology of leadership, Identity, Influence and Power. London, Psychology Press – – • https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~dforsyth/pubs/HoytGoethalsForsyth2008.pdf An interesting introduction to an unfindable book There is an enormous profusion of popular books on leadership – – • http://www.agrippa.co.uk/Executive-Coaching/Latest-Thinking-October-2011-The-New-Psychology-ofLeadership.pdf Excellent book on the social aspects of leadership Hoyt, C.I., Goethals, G.R, & and Forsyth, D. R. (2008) A contemporary social psychology of leadership – – • http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/finance/2012/0618/1224318130167.html Excellent book on the neurological and hormonal aspects of leadership http://www.leadershipnow.com/leadershop/leadership_classics.html Not all of them are so excellent, in fact: don’t read, just be amazed and draw your conclusions Pratkanis, A.R. (ed) (2007) The science of social influence. New York, Psychology Press – Contains the famous list of 100+ SI techniques that are used to deceive people