Mohism (Moism)墨家
I.1 The Life of Mozi
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Mozi, named Ti (墨翟)--know nothing about his life
lived between the death of Confucius (479B.C.) and
the birth of Mencius (372 B.C.)
studied under the Confucian School:
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quoted a lot from the Book of Poetry詩經 & the Book of
Documents書經
criticizes Confucian philosophy & practice in detail
Once served as a high minister in the state of Song宋
(small and weak)
I.1 The Life of Mozi
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Mozi also traveled a great deal, like most
philosophers in late Zhou (Spring-autumn & Warring
Period)
hope to actualize his teachings.
All Mohists acted according to his philosophical
teachings
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Unique ideas:
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universal love兼愛
No war非攻
I.2 The Book: The Mozi
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complied by his disciples
53 chapters: some were incomplete
Important chapters: on political and
ethical ideas of Mozi himself.
I.3 The Teachings of Mozi
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Mission of the Mohists: no War
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1. by preaching universal love
2. by warning the head of a state the potential risk & disadvantages
of attacking others
2. by strengthening the defense of vulnerable states so as to diminish
the chances of a profitable victory for invaders
Moists live according to their teachings
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left home to form close-knit, disciplined bands
headed by an “elder” whose word was law, and when death drew near,
selected his successor from the group.
Go to invading states to point out the possibilities of losing the war
Aid the weak states to defense themselves.
Moists are experts on methods of defense
I.3 The Teachings of Mozi
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All chapter-titles reflect the content
Many: criticize Confucianism:
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Universal Love兼愛 (ch.14-16)
Against Music非樂 (ch. 33-34)
Moderation in Expenditure節用 (ch. 20-22)
Moderation in Funerals節葬 (ch.23-25)
Against Confucians非儒 (ch.38-39)
The Will of Tian天志 (ch.26-28)
Explaining Ghosts明鬼 (ch.29-31)
Against Fatalism非命 (ch.36-37)
I.3 The Teachings of Mozi
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Against the ruling class than any other
philosophical school.
Heavily Condemned:
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the lifestyle of the aristocracy:
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such pastimes taxed the wealth and energy of
the common people
added nothing to the material welfare of the
state
I.3.1
Ch.20: Moderation in Expenditure節用
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(M ch.20) “The purpose of making clothes is to keep out the
cold in winter and the heat in summer… The purpose of
building house is to keep out the wind and cold in winter and
the heat and rain in summer, and to provide protection against
thieves… The purpose of armor, shields, and the various kinds
of weapons is to provide protection against rebels and bandits...
The purpose of making boats and carts is to provide a means of
getting about on land and on rivers… In making of these five
things, nothing is done that does not contribute to their
usefulness…
“其為衣裘何,以為冬以圉寒,夏以圉暑…其為宮室何,以為冬以圉寒,
夏以圉暑,有盜賊加固者…其為甲盾五兵何,以為以圉寇亂盜賊…
其為舟吏何,以為車以行陵陸,舟以行川公… 凡其為此物也,無不加
用而為者…”
I.3.1
ch.20: Moderation in Expenditure節用
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(M ch.20) “If one can persuade the rulers to give up
their passion for collecting jewels, birds, beasts, dogs,
and horses, and to increase the amount of clothing,
houses, armor, shields, weapons, boats, and carts,
then it is easy enough to double the number of these
articles… Therefore Mozi said: To do away with
needless expenditure is the way of the sage kings
and the source of great benefit to the world.”
“有去大人之好聚珠玉鳥獸犬馬,以益衣裳宮室甲盾五兵
舟車之數,於數倍乎…故墨子曰:去無用之費,聖王之道,
天下之大利也.”
I.3.2
ch.25: Moderation in Funerals節葬
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Against the importance of elaborate funerals in Confucianism
(M ch.25) “In my opinion, if, by following the principles and
adopting the instruction of those who advocate elaborate
funerals and lengthy mourning one can actually enrich the poor,
increase the population, bring stability and order to the state,
then such principles are in accordance with ren and yi and are
the duty of a filial son…Thus we see that in elaborate funerals
much wealth is buried, while lengthy mourning prevents people
from going about their activities for long periods of time. If the
wealth and goods that have already been produced are to be
bundled up and buried in the ground, and the means of future
production are to be prohibited for long periods of time, and
one still hopes in this way to enrich a state , then it is like
prohibiting planting and still hoping for a harvest. One could
never acquire wealth that way!”
I.3.2
ch.25: Moderation in Funerals節葬
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(M ch.25) “厚葬久喪,實可以富貧眾寡定
危治亂乎?此仁也義也,孝子之事也…細計
厚葬為多埋賦之財者也.計久喪為久禁從
事者也.財以成者,扶而埋之,後得生孝,而
久禁之.以此求富,此譬猶禁耕而求穫也,
富之說無可得焉.”
I.3.3
ch.32: Against Music非樂
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Against the importance of music in Confucianism
(M ch.32) “There are three things the people worry
about: that when they are hungry they will have no
food, when they are cold they will have no clothing,
and when they are weary they will have no rest.
There are the three great worries of the people. Now
let us try sounding the great bells, striking the rolling
drums, strumming the zithers, blowing the pipes, and
waving the shields and axes in the war dance. Does
this do anything to provide food and clothing for the
people? I hardly think so...”
I.3.3
ch.32: Against Music非樂
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“民有三患:飢者不得食,寒者不得衣,勞者
不得息.三者民之巨患也.然即當為之撞巨
鐘,擊鳴鼓,彈琴瑟,吹竽笙,而揚干戚,民衣
食之財將安可得乎.即我以為未必然也…”
1.3.4 Moists’ Concern
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Basic needs (food, warmth) for
everyone
the farmers = the majority
Moists ignore contributions made by
any other sectors
Understandable:
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warfare for 300-400years.
I.3.4
ch.19: Against Offensive Warfare非攻
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Denounced offensive warfare for the same reason
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a burden & an expense to the people, yet no material benefit
(M ch. 19) “(The rulers and feudal lords of today) all set about
to examine the relative merits of their soldiers, who are their
teeth and claws, arrange their boat and chariot forces, and then,
clad in strong armor and bearing sharp weapons, they set off to
attack some innocent state…When a state which delights in
aggressive warfare raises an army, it must have several hundred
high officials, several thousand regular officers, and a hundred
thousand soldiers, before it can set out. The time required for
the expenditure will be several years at the longest, several
months at the least…
I.3.4 The Teachings of Mozi:
Against Offensive Warfare非攻
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“…During that time, the leaders will have no time to attend to
affairs of government, the officials no time to manage their
departments of state, the farmers no time to sow or reap, the
women no time to spin or weave. So in this case too the state
will lose its fighting men and the common people will be forced
to abandon their occupations...”
“(今王公大人,天下諸候)必皆差論其爪牙之士,皆列其舟
吏之卒伍,於此為堅甲利兵,以往攻伐無罪之國…今不嘗
觀其說好攻伐之國,若使中興師,君子庶人也,必且數千,
徒倍十萬,然後足以師而動矣.久者數歲,速者數月.是上
不暇聽治,士不暇治其官府.農夫不暇稼穡,婦人不暇紡
績織紝.則是國家失卒,而百姓易務也…”
I.3.5 Against Fatalism非命
- Attacked fatalistic thinking :
--men should believe that wealth
and good fortune came only in
response to virtuous deeds.
--we have to be good to avoid bad
luck
I.3.6 “Against Fatalism非命” (M ch.3537):
Mozi’s Way of Argumentation
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Three criteria (法) for the validity of any theory:
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1. origin本
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2. validity原
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whether or not it conforms with what we know of the
practices of the sage kings of antiquity.
whether or not it conforms with what we know from the
evidence of the senses.
3. its applicability用
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whether, when put into practice, it will bring benefit to the
state and the people.
I.3.6 Mozi’s Way of
Argumentation
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Mozi does not apply all three in every
case, these are the principal criteria
upon which he bases his arguments.
I.3.6 Analysis: “origin”本
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“Of what history proves”
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may not be the truth
disparate and even contradictory assertions
Mozi always cites to ancient legends and
myths
I.3.6 Analysis: “origin”
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Most educated Chinese accepted the following:
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1. At certain periods in the past, great/ enlightened rulers
raised Chinese society to a level of peace, prosperity.
2. Through the records in the Book of Poetry and Book of
Documents, how these rulers had acted and why.
The appeal to antiquity:
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carried enormous weight in Mozi’s day
Even down to the present century
I.3.6
Analysis: “validity” & “applicability”
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Based on the evidence of the senses are
unreliable
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BUT: wrong perception, hallucinations
e.g. ghosts and spirits exist in the world
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on the basis that people says: see and hear them.
Practicability:
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whether the policy/rule/theory is useful,
advantageous
vital in assessment
I.3 “Honoring the worthy”尚賢 (ch.8)
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Rulers’ in Mozi’s time:
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Ambitous, to expand the border
to employ wise & virtuous men from all
classes in their governments
Emphasis character and ability rather than
blood
Same idea in most philosophical schools
I.3.8.
“Identifying with one’s Superior”
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Authoritarianism: Chinese tradition (e.g.
Moists, Confucians, Legalists etc.)
hierarchical social order :
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pyramid of classes
The King = “Son of Heaven/Tian”天子
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“a personal God”
Till modern time: no one ever dream of
challenging this system.
I.3.8.
“Identifying with one’s Superior”
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Mozi:
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each group in society must take orders
from the group above it
Decisions, in normal times at least, come
only from above
Advice could, and should flow freely
upward the hierarchy.
Question:
What happen if the top person goes awry?
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Confucian’s answer:
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a new leader
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rise up from the lower rank
replace the wicked person (disqualified himself
for the position by his misrule)
his virtues: wins the support of the people and
Tian (a vague order of the above)
Question:
What happen if the top person goes awry?
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Mozi’s answer:
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the same process as the Confucians
BUT pays less attention to the leader as a
person
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The leader: chosen by God on High (a personal
deity), i.e. the supernatural power
I.3.9.
Mozi’s Religious Views
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Tribal/ barbarous beliefs
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before Zhou Dynasty e.g. Hsia, Shang Dynasty
in the Book of Poetry & the Book of Documents
The Lord on High上帝
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a personal deity:
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Creates, love, cares all
Other ghosts & spirits:
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to take personal revenge upon enemies
To protect their families/ friends/ those who helped them
I.3.9. Mozi’s Religious Views
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Since early Zhou people
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no such a personal deity
the Confucians: agnosticism
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to revitalized the old religious rites (li) by imbuing them
with new interpretations (with the ideas like ren, yi)
Mozi:
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back to the simple, pietistic, and fear-ridden faith
of antiquity
Instrumental/ Purposeful
men will be frightened to do wrong
Will be persuaded to love and benefit one another
I.3.9. Mozi’s Religious Views
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(M ch.31) “If we could only make all the people in the world believe
that the ghosts and spirits have the power to reward the worthy and
punish the wicked, then how could there be any disorder in the world?”
(M ch.31) “The way to determine whether something exists or not is to
find out whether people actually know from the evidence of their own
ears and eyes whether it exists, and us this as a standard. If someone
has actually seen it and heard it, then we must assume that it exists…
If from antiquity to today, from the beginning of mankind to the
present, there have been people who have seen ghostlike and spiritlike
beings and heard their voices, then how can we say they do not
exist?...
“…Therefore Mozi said: Even in deep valleys, the broad forests, the
dark and distant places where no one lives, you must not fail to act
with sincerity, for the ghosts and spirits will see you even there!”
“是與天下之所以察知有與無之道者,必以眾之耳目之實知有與亡為儀者也,
請惑聞之見之,則必以為有…自古以及今,生民以來者,亦有嘗見鬼神之物,
聞鬼神之聲,則鬼神何謂無乎?”
I.3.10. “Universal Love”兼愛
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Famous and original among all Chinese
thoughts.
An ideal: more noble than any other
philosophical ideas
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Confucianism:
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relational love, starting with the family & extend out
Mozi:
men should love everyone equally, for all are the
creatures and people of God
I.3.10. “Universal Love”
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(M ch.16) “When we inquire into the causes of various harms (at the
present time), what do we find has produced them?... They come
rather from hating others and trying to injure them. And when we set
out to classify and describe those men who hate and injure others,
shall we say that their actions are motivated by universality or partiality?
Surely we must answer by partiality, and it is this partiality in their
dealings with one another that gives rise to all the great harms in the
world. Therefore we know that partiality is wrong…Therefore, Mozi
said: Partiality should be replaced by universality…
“…If men were to regard the states of others as they regard their own,
then who would raise up his state to attack the state of another?... If
men were to regard the families of others as they regard their own,
then who would raise up his family to overthrow that of another?...
Now when states and cities do not attack and make war on each other
and families and individuals do not overthrow or injure on one
another… Surely it is a benefit.”
I.3.10. “Universal Love”兼愛
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“姑嘗本原若眾害之所自生.必曰,從惡人
賊人生.分冬乎天下惡人與賊人者,兼與別
與?即必曰,別也.然即之交別者,果生天下
之大害者也,是故別非也…故子墨子曰:兼
以易別…藉為人之國若為其國,夫誰獨舉
其國以攻入之國者哉.為彼者由為己也,為
人之家若為其家.夫誰獨舉其家以亂人之
家者哉.為彼猶為己也…即必曰:天下之利
也…”
I.3.10.
Discussion on Universal Love: Mozi’s Criteria of
Argument
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Qn: What good is the doctrine of universal love?
An: It will bring the greatest benefit to the largest number of
people. [criteria 3 : applicability– useful & beneficial]
Qn: Can it be put into practice?
An: Yes, this is proved by the fact that it was actually practiced
by the sage king of antiquity. [criteria 1: origin]
Qn: How is it to be put into practice?
An: The rulers can be persuaded of its usefulness, and they in
turn will enforce it among the people by laws and coercion.
I.3.11 Against Confucians非儒: (unreasonable/
illogical rituals in daily practices)
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(M. ch.39) “(Confucian) code of rites says: “Mourning for a father or
mother should last three years; for a wife or eldest son, three years;
for a paternal uncle, brother, or younger son, one year; and for other
close relatives, five months.” Now if the length of the mourning period
is determined by the degree of kinship, then close relatives should be
mourned for a long period and distant relative for a short one. Yet the
Confucians mourn the same length of time for a wife or eldest son as
for a father or mother…
“…And in the length of the mourning period is determined by the
degree of honor due, then this means that the wife and eldest son are
honored the same as the father and mother, while paternal uncles and
brothers are placed on the same level as younger sons. What could be
more perverse than this?...
“When a Confucian takes a wife, he goes to fetch her in person.
Wearing a formal black robe, he acts as his own coachman, holding the
reins and handing her the cord by which to pull herself up into the
carriage, as though he were escorting an honored parent…
I.3.11 Against Confucians
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(M. ch.39) “…The wedding ceremonies are conducted with as
much solemnity as the sacrifices to the ancestors. High and low
are turned upside down, and parents are disregarded and
scorned. Parents are brought down to the level of the wife and
the wife is exalted at the expense of service to the parents.
How could such conduct be called filial? …
“..The Confucians say: ‘One takes a wife in order that she may
aid in the sacrifices to the ancestors, and the son who is born of
the union will in time become responsible for maintaining the
ancestral temple. Therefore the wife and son are highly
regarded.’ But we reply that this is false and misleading…
I.3.11 Against Confucians
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(ch.39) “A man’s uncles and older brothers may maintain the
temple of the ancestors for many years, and yet when they die
the Confucian will mourn for them only one year. The wives of
his brother may aid in the sacrifices to the ancestors, and yet
when they die he will not mourn for them at all. It is obvious,
therefore, that the Confucians do not mourn three years for
wives and eldest sons because wives and eldest sons maintain
or aid in the sacrifices…
“Such concern for one’s wife and son is a troublesome
involvement, and in addition the Confucians try to pretend that
it is for the sake of their parents. In order to favor those whom
they feel the most partiality for, they slight those whom they
should respect the most. Is this not the height of perversity?....”
I.4.1 Popularity of Moism
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According to Mencius 6.9:
“The words of Yang Zhu and Mo Ti fill the Empire.
The teachings current in the Empire are those of
either the school of Yang or the school of Mo. Yang
advocates everyone for himself, which amounts to a
denial of one’s prince; Mo advocates love without
discrimination, which amounts to a denial of one’s
father. To ignore one’s father on the one hand, and
one’s prince on the other, is to be no different from
the beasts.”
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楊朱,墨翟之言盈天下.天下之言不歸楊,則歸墨.楊氏為我,是無
君也;墨氏兼愛,是無父也.無君無父,是禽獸也.
I.4.2 The Decline of Moism
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Works of the 3th century B.C.:
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Mo-ism & Confucianism = the most
important philosophical schools
From the 2th century B.C. on (after the
unification of the empire under the Chin
秦) :
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not much of the Moist school
I.4.2 The Decline of Moism
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1. Mozi’s ideas:
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2. Mencius
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Merely practical/ instrumental
inadequate for an entire system of moral philosophy
commented heavily on the prevalence of Moism
3. After Mozi’s death:
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The upper class/wealthy reject Mozi’s frugality and plain
living
The educated (Confucians) reject the ancient legends and
religious beliefs
The common people: (before or after Mozi): hold retribution
of the spirits
I.4.2 End of Moism
The Zhuangzi --ch 10, “Tian-jia天下”
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“(The Mohist philosophy has) no singing in life, no
mourning in death, 生不歌,死无服”
“It causes the people to be anxious, to be sorrowful, and
its ways are hard to follow “(Zhuangzi,)
Remains in Moism, almost identical with traditional
Confucianism:
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emphasis upon selecting and promoting worthy men to
office
upon the welfare of the common people