Knowledge Framework
AOK
How do we know things? We know things because we use a range
of methods of inquiry that incorporate ways of knowing to help
construct knowledge in different areas of knowledge (AOKs).
The theory of knowledge course distinguishes between eight AOKs:
• mathematics
• natural sciences
• human sciences
• history
• the arts
• ethics
• religious knowledge systems
• indigenous knowledge systems
Knowledge framework
Within this knowledge framework, key features of each area are
identified, as are specific terminology and concepts which shape that area of
knowledge. The key historical developments that have influenced and shaped
each area are identified, as well as the ways that each makes use of particular
methodology. Finally, there is opportunity for reflection on the interaction
between shared and personal knowledge in each area.
Knowledge frameworks are a very effective device to compare and
contrast areas of knowledge. The idea is that each AOK can be thought of,
broadly speaking, as a coherent whole—a vast system with a rich inner
structure. TOK aims to explore this structure and to understand just what it is
that gives each AOK its particular character. It is also concerned with what
these AOKs have in common. A useful strategy is to build a TOK course around
comparing and contrasting the various AOKs, to look for features they have in
common but also to highlight their differences and pinpoint what gives each its
own characteristic flavor.
1. Scope/applications
• What is the area of knowledge about?
Subject matter might distinguish disciplines or fields that
share some of the same methodology.
• What practical problems can be solved through applying
this knowledge?
This is an important question because it reinforces the idea
we mentioned earlier that knowledge can be seen as an
attempt to solve a particular set of problems.
• What makes this area of knowledge important?
Any teacher worth his/her salts should be able to argue for
the importance (or even the primary importance) of his/her
subject.
1. Scope/applications
• What are the current open questions in this area—
important questions that are currently unanswered?
It is useful for you to be confronted with two facts: that
areas of knowledge are incomplete and that they are
adapting to solve as-yet open questions.
• Are there ethical considerations that limit the scope of
inquiry? If so, what are they?
You should be confronted with the possibility that there
might be questions that might be unethical even to ask.
Should researchers ask how to make a more effective
landmine to maim more civilians per dollar, for example?
(Brainstorm more examples?)
1. Scope/applications
This component attempts to explore the range of the
specific AOK within the totality of human knowledge and
how that knowledge is used. Scope refers to the definition
of the AOK in terms of subject matter, and the form that an
AOK takes depends critically upon the nature of the
problems it is trying to answer.
For example:
• biology studies living organisms and is mainly concerned
with how they function
• mathematics is the study of quantity, space, shape and
change
• in engineering, however, precise numerical methods are a
matter of life and death
1. Scope/applications
• music might not seem concerned with solving practical
problems at all but the composer has to solve the “musical
engineering” problems of building a piece of music; it has
to be a unified whole and yet at the same time there has to
be some sort of inherent contrast there to provide tension
and energy and, for the listener, interest.
Exploration of the scope and applications of a
particular AOK can lead to interesting discussions of the
ethical considerations that have to be taken into account.
Practitioners in a particular AOK might not be permitted to
explore all the aspects that are of interest. There might be
moral and ethical limits on the sort of investigations they
undertake and experiments they perform.
2. Concepts/language
• What role does language play in the accumulation of knowledge
in this area?
Knowledge can be shared over space and time. In order for this
to happen it has to be transported and stored. This necessarily
requires language. Precisely how this is achieved depends on the
area of knowledge. Academic disciplines might answer this
question in approximately the same way. Knowledge is
transported and stored through the written word and other
systems of symbols that do an equivalent job such as
mathematical, chemical, musical or dance notation. BUT! the
question becomes more interesting when we consider nonacademic areas of knowledge such as indigenous knowledge
systems, systems of religious knowledge or certain types of
knowledge in the arts.
2. Concepts/language
• What are the roles of the key concepts and key terms
that provide the building blocks for knowledge in this
area?
(Write down the 5 big ideas in an HL subject you take.
What concepts are required for these ideas to make
sense? Try to write down the 5 big concepts to support
these ideas.) This activity should help you understand
how complex ideas within an area of knowledge are
constructed out of concepts.
2. Concepts/language
• What metaphors are appropriate to this area of
knowledge?
Metaphors play an important role in our
understanding. (Explain)
2. Concepts/language
It gives us a way to visualize complex our esoteric ideas
in an everyday setting and hence enables us to find our
way in an unfamiliar context. We can transfer our
everyday intuitions and experience to the new situation
and let the metaphor guide our thinking there. Like any
analogy there are dangers. (Explain)
2. Concepts/language
We might pursue the parallel too far and the everyday common
sense intuitions and experience might not hold in the new
situation. Light used to be thought of as being a bit like waves in
water. But the analogy started to break down when physicists
said: “OK what is the equivalent of the medium of water for
light?” This turned out to be a bad question because Maxwell
showed that the assumption that a wave had to have a
transmission medium was necessary. Our intuitions are further
confused in this example when quantum theory comes along and
tells us that light is actually a particle (metaphor: ball). Now we
have no common sense object to act as a metaphor: something
that is both like a water wave and like a child’s ball. Our
intuitions are left without a guide and our understanding suffers
as a result.
2. Concepts/language
• What is the role of convention in this area?
(Define “convention”)
2. Concepts/language
• What is the role of convention in this area?
Convention is an arbitrary agreement that something
is the case. Driving on the right hand side of the road is
a convention. Language itself is one big set of
conventions. Areas of knowledge use convention in
order to make knowledge transportable—so convention
is an important tool for producing shared knowledge.
Without it we would have a multiplicity of little
personal understandings.
2. Concepts/language
We explored language earlier but there are conventions
outside of language We explored language earlier but there
are conventions outside of language. The arts are full of
them and they come rather naturally. Students of art often
draw pictures with horizontal perspective (horizontal
parallel lines converging to a vanishing point) but without
vertical perspective—this is not how the world appears but
it is a convention we use in our representations. In music or
theatre there are whole sets of performance conventions
depending on the genre of the piece. In science there are
conventions for experimental procedures and for publishing
results, in film there are conventions with stock meanings.
(Brainstorm more examples)
2. Concepts/language
Advanced students (and their advanced teachers)
might want to separate convention in the arts from
convention in the sciences. It seems that convention in
art is partly constitutive of the art form (just as rules of
football are constitutive of a game of football—change
the rules and you change the game) but this might not
be true in science. What about comedy?
Comedy link
2. Concepts/language
PERSPECTIVE
Convention in art. Horizontal lines tend towards a vanishing
point (railway tracks) while vertical lines do not (telegraph
poles) and remain parallel. This is not how the world appears
but is rather a convention of our system of representation—in
this case a perspective drawing.
2. Concepts/language
This element explores the way in which language
is used in the production of knowledge in each AOK.
The key idea is that language does not just
communicate pre-existing “non-verbal” knowledge but
that, in many cases, the language used actually
constitutes knowledge. Take language away and there
is nothing left. One of the reasons for this is that the
language names concepts—these are the building
blocks for knowledge.
2. Concepts/language
An AOK is a system of relationships between its key
concepts. Different building blocks build quite different
AOKs and produce different ways of thinking about the world.
For example:
• in physics key concepts include those of causation, energy and its
conservation principle, field, charge
and so on
• in visual arts we might be concerned with the color palette,
texture, composition, movement,
symbolism and technique
• in music the central concepts might be melody, rhythm, harmony,
tension, relaxation, texture and color.
2. Concepts/language
Discussions of the concepts and language that
shape an AOK can link well to discussions about
shared knowledge. Language allows knowledge to be
passed on to others and to be accumulated over time
for future generations. This is what makes this sort of
knowledge “shared knowledge”. The fact that it can be
communicated between individuals across space and
over time is important. A significant proportion of
current knowledge is not new but has been passed
down to us from the past or from other parts of the
world.
3. Methodology
• What are the methods or procedures used in this area and what is it
about these methods that generates knowledge?
It is important you do not just describe the methodology of a particular
area of knowledge. You should also dig deeper and ask questions about
why these particular methods work.
• What are the roles of reason, emotion, sense perception, imagination,
faith, memory, intuition in these procedures?
To tackle this question you need to try to find glimpses of the
traditional WOKs in the methods of inquiry of the areas of knowledge.
(Discuss what this means)
• What are the assumptions underlying these methods?
• What counts as a fact in this area of knowledge?
• What role do models play in this area of knowledge?
• What ethical thinking constrains the methods used to gain knowledge?
3. Methodology
• What are the assumptions underlying these methods?
This question brings to light a cluster of important
knowledge questions. In order for the methodology to
produce knowledge, certain conditions have to be met.
It is the nature of human knowledge that it is probably
not possible to establish these assumptions without
some sort of circularity.
3. Methodology
For example, the natural sciences require that nature is
uniform over time so that they can use repetition of
experiment results as an indicator of reliability. But
how can we decide if nature is uniform over time? The
methods we might employ, such as experiment, only
work if the assumption itself is true—they are
themselves based on it. (Explain “circularity”)
3. Methodology
• What counts as a fact in this area of knowledge?
If we think of facts as being the raw material of
knowledge—the foundations, let us say, then it is
important to be able to identify what these could be in
different areas of knowledge. In history facts might be
historical documents, while in the natural sciences they
might be the results of experiments. (What might they
be in other AOKs?)
3. Methodology
• What role do models play in this area of knowledge?
Explanations probably aim to connect a complex thing
to a set of simple things. In the natural sciences this
might be an observed phenomenon and the simple
things might be laws of nature. In the arts it might be
understanding an artwork in terms of artistic or
aesthetic principles. For example, a film might be
understood in terms of its structure, its dramaturgy, its
setting, its photography, its symbolism and its implicit
psychology perhaps.
3. Methodology
• What ethical thinking constrains the methods used to
gain knowledge?
Models can be found almost everywhere in the TOK
course. (Explain what purpose models serve.)
3. Methodology
It might be that a model is a good model of knowledge
itself. (Identify the use of models in an area of
knowledge and discuss its role.)
3. Methodology
(Refer to “Modeling Spitfire and hangar”)
The diagram shows how models help us to understand
a complex and messy world. The blue vertical line
divides the messy real world from the ideal world of the
model. In a sense it is a vertical version of the
horizontal division between the real world and TOK
thinking. The three arrows represent the three stages of
the modeling process. Each of these arrows gives rise
to its own set of knowledge questions.
3. Methodology
One of the most striking differences between the
AOKs is the methods that they use. Examining and
comparing the methodologies of the different AOKs
begins with YOU being able to identify the specific
methods or procedures used in an AOK, and exploring
the assumptions that underlie those methods.
3. Methodology
Assumptions and values play an important part in
the methodology that underpins the production of
knowledge. Each AOK establishes certain things as
being important and others less so—each has a set of
values that underpin the knowledge that is produced.
No AOK is value free—some methods are better than
others, some facts are more reliable than others, some
theoretical models give better understanding than
others. Recognition of these values and how they affect
the methodology that is used is crucial to
understanding the character of the AOK.
3. Methodology
For example, in the natural sciences, much
knowledge comes about through testing hypotheses by
experiment; this assumes that laboratory conditions
accurately mimic what happens in the rest of the
universe and that the world can be understood as a
system of causes determining effects.
One way to explore methodology is to examine
the question of what counts as a fact in this particular
AOK. Another way would be to examine the question
of what counts as an explanation in this particular
AOK.
3. Methodology
For example:
• in the natural sciences, much knowledge comes about
through testing hypotheses by For example:
• in history, an explanation might consist of an
overarching theory giving plausible motivations to the
various historical actors that joins up the isolated
historical documents
• in literature, the explanation of text might involve
examination of its themes, motives and
characterization through the literary devices
employed.
3. Methodology
Another way to explore methodology is to
examine any constraints on the methods that can be
used; for example, ethical constraints on experiments
conducted in the human sciences.
4. Historical development
This group of questions establishes how the
current form of an area of knowledge depends on its
past. It is an acknowledgement of the fact that
knowledge is continually changing according to
advances in methodology, interests and the types of
problem it is designed to solve. This the place for
reflection on the fact that the area of knowledge might
have looked quite different if certain historical
‘accidents’ had not occurred.
4. Historical development
• What is the significance of the key points in the
historical development of this area of knowledge?
This question seems on the surface to require a
description of the main outline of the history of a
subject. This in itself is a useful activity, of course, but
in a TOK context the motivation is more subtle. The
way in which we think about the world depends heavily
on key moments in the past where our “conventional
wisdom” about the area is formed.
4. Historical development
• What is the significance of the key points in the
historical development of this area of knowledge?
T0 make epistemic progress it might be necessary to
revisit these key moments and ask the question whether
the direction taken then is a good one or whether it led
us in the wrong direction. (Remember your Nobel Prize
Winner presentations???) For example, in the 18th and
19th century big advances were made in economics that
led us to consider the subject in terms of an overall cost
benefit analysis.
4. Historical development
Economics became an exercise in deciding whether
certain policy decisions yielded the greatest net benefit
(either from the point of view of the consumer, the
producer, or government). Amartya Sen proposed a
different where we look at the development of human
capabilities instead. Perhaps some of the bigger
economic disasters of the last 100 years could have been
avoided if we had challenged these initial utilitarian or
‘profit driven’ ideas. (Brainstorm examples)
• How has the history of this area led to its current form?
4. Historical development
• How has the history of this area led to its current
form?
This question again looks like a request for description. It is
intended to raise the awareness of the history of an area in
the formation of present ideas. What is intended is that a
connection is made between the answer to question #1 and
YOUR current understanding of the area. This not only
deepens YOUR knowledge but also gives YOU a set of
examples that can be used in the TOK essay or presentation
to support arguments suggesting that some areas of
knowledge are perhaps more sensitive to cultural and
historical factors than others.
4. Historical development
•How would these questions be answered 100 years ago?
(Examine the ways in which AOK have developed across
all aspects of the framework:
1. Scope/applications
2. Concepts/language
3. Methodology )In the past the scope, interests and
questions asked might have been different.
4. Historical development
In the past the scope, interests and questions asked
might have been different. The methods of inquiry
might have been different for a number of reasons
including technological change. This question is also
designed as a quarry for examples.
4. Historical development
• Is it conceptually possible that his AOK would look
different if history were rerun?
This is a difficult question. It asks you to understand
that knowledge is a human attribute that is arrived at
through human activities and is subject to all the
complexities of human social life. If history were
replayed these complexities might have been played out
in different ways arriving at different-looking subject
disciplines. Some AOK might be more prone to the
contingency of human history than others and it is
YOUR job to try to work out why this is. (Brainstorm
examples)
4. Historical development
In some cases YOU might decide that it is only a question of
terminology that is subject to historical forces and that any
differences would be cosmetic. YOU might decide that after
human history is replayed chemistry would actually look
the same (or at least be formulated in a functionally
equivalent manner) because it is strongly answerable to an
independent reality. But it is worth pointing out that even a
tough realist student of the natural sciences would have to
concede, for example, that the units of measurement we use
are a result of 19th century European history and the
concepts we use are largely developed in England in the 17th
century.
4. Historical development
AOKs are dynamic entities that change over time as
conceptual developments and advances are made in
methodology. This need not be seen as a problem but
rather an advantage—our systems are flexible and capable
of responding to developments. Knowledge can, therefore,
be considered provisional.
For example:
• consider a Swedish school textbook in history from 1912: it is
quite different in its idea of history from those used today;
a physics textbook from 1912 seems to have much the same
idea about physics but the content is likely to be different.
4. Historical development
• an artwork or music might derive much of its meaning from the
historical context in which it is produced and might even reference
other earlier works. (Brainstorm examples)
Tracking the rough historical development of an AOK is a
valuable tool in TOK. It is tempting to speculate that if we re-ran the
history of human knowledge then the AOKs might look quite different
to their current form. How much of our knowledge depends on
accidents of history? Are certain AOKs more susceptible to these
historical factors than others? Even our systems of measurement (m,
kg, s) are historically situated and so, of course, are the concepts and
the language employed by subject disciplines. Interesting discussions
can be had over why particular historical events and factors have had
such an impact on the development of a particular AOK.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
This group of questions makes the important link
between personal and shared knowledge. (Define
each.) It is useful for getting YOU to think ‘what does
this mean for me’? about results in a particular subject.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
• Why is this area significant to the individual?
The purpose of this question is to explore exactly how
one’s personal knowledge draws heavily upon shared
knowledge. Moreover, it hints that our systems of value
and significance are not just creative products of our
imaginations operation independently of others but are
refined and in some cases formed by contact with
shared knowledge. Perhaps the lesson here is than we
are far less original than we think.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
• What is the nature of the contribution of individuals to
this area?
You are encouraged to actually find concrete examples
of individual contributions to shared knowledge to
show how individual abilities can generate the initial
impetus for innovation in an AOK. Of course the
individual contribution then has to go through the
validation procedures outlined in the ‘methodology’
part of the framework.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
• What responsibilities rest upon the individual knower
by virtue of his or her knowledge in this area?
Perhaps the access to shared knowledge brings personal
responsibilities. (Brainstorm examples)
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
It is conceivable that a doctor carries extra
responsibilities through her training and could be
obliged to act in situations that require her expertise.
She might be called upon to attend to someone
requiring assistance after an accident while off-duty
while those without medical training might be exempt.
There are a number of knowledge questions that are
raised at this point. (Given the prior scenario,
brainstorm some highly-effective KQ)
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
To what extent might there be an obligation to use the
access one has to shared knowledge for the common
good? This is particularly complicated in the case of
medical researchers working in a commercial
environment on drugs to treat critical conditions such
as AIDS.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
• What are the implications of this area of knowledge for
one’s own individual perspective?
Recall that those with access to a specific area of
shared knowledge form a group. This group might
possess a particular perspective on the world by virtue
of this shared knowledge. This question explores in a
concrete manner how personal perspectives might be
formed or changed by access to shared knowledge.
(Brainstorm examples)
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
• What assumptions underlie the individual’s own
approach to this knowledge?
How the individual approaches shared knowledge
might also depend a little on other factors particular to
the individual. (Brainstorm examples)
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
Factors may include biography, character, and
membership to other groups. These factors are
constitutive of personal perspective and it is important
that the student explores ways in which these
background assumptions can be brought to light. It is
useful in doing TOK to be able to reflect on the
contribution one’s personal perspectives make to one’s
judgments and decision-making. (Ask yourself the
following questions: “What are YOUR personal
perspectives that contribute to your judgments and
decision-making?”)
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
There are links and interactions between shared
and personal knowledge. Individuals contribute to
shared knowledge. Their contributions have to go
through whatever validation procedures are required
by a particular discipline in order to be counted as
“common” knowledge in that area. But shared
knowledge also contributes to an individual’s own
understanding of the world. This is one, but not the
only, purpose of shared knowledge—that it enables
individuals to make sense of the world.
5. Links to Personal Knowledge
The nature of this interaction between shared and
personal knowledge is the last component of the
knowledge framework to be examined. It is important
because it addresses the question “so what does this
mean for me?” What impact do these AOKs have on
our individual lives and the way in which we view the
world? How does this area form or change our
perspective?
YOUR TURN!
Groups of 3:
1. Invent a new AOK.
2. Construct a knowledge framework.
3. Explain how each component of the framework
supports the invented AOK.