Chapter 1
Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
Research Methods in Physical Activity
The object of research is to determine how things are as compared to how
they might be. To achieve this, research implies a careful and systematic means
of solving problems and involves five characteristics (Tuckman, 1978).
♦Systematic.
Problem solving is accomplished through the identification and
labeling of variables and is followed by the design of research that tests the
relationships among these variables. Data are then collected that, when
related to the variables, allow the evaluation of the problem and hypotheses.
♦Logical.
Examination of the procedures used in the research process allows
researchers to evaluate the conclusions drawn.
♦Empirical.
The researcher collects data on which to base decisions.
♦Reductive.
The researcher takes individual events (data) and uses them to establish
general relationships.
♦Replicable.
The research process is recorded, enabling others to test the
findings by repeating the research or to build future research on previous
results.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Research Continuum
Research in our field can be placed on a continuum that has
applied research at one extreme and basic research at the opposite extreme.
Applied research —Type of research that has direct value to practitioners
but in which the researcher has limited control over the research setting.
Basic research —Type of research that may have limited direct application
but in which the researcher has careful control of the conditions.
Basic research and applied research can be thought of as two ends of a
continuum. Basic research addresses theoretical problems, often in
laboratory settings, and may have limited direct application. Applied
research addresses immediate problems, often in less controlled real-world
settings, and is more closely linked to application.
Example - Applied research tends to address immediate problems, to use socalled real-world settings, to use human participants, to have limited control
over the research setting, but to give results that are of direct value to
practitioners. At the other extreme, basic research usually deals with
theoretical problems. It uses the laboratory as the setting, frequently uses
animals as subjects, carefully controls conditions, and produces results that
have limited direct application.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Example - Applied research tends to address immediate problems, to
use so-called real-world settings, to use human participants, to have
limited control over the research setting, but to give results that are of
direct value to practitioners. At the other extreme, basic research
usually deals with theoretical problems. It uses the laboratory as the
setting, frequently uses animals as subjects, carefully controls conditions,
and produces results that have limited direct application.
Basic and applied forms of research are useful in informing each other as
to future research directions….. (see Table1.1, page 5, text)
Research Methods in Physical Activity
To some extent, the strengths of applied research are the weaknesses of
basic research, and vice versa. So should research be basic or applied?
This issue, labeled ecological validity (the extent to which research emulates the
real world), deals with two concerns:
1) Is the research setting perceived by the research participant in the way
intended by the experimenter?
2) Does the setting have enough of the real-world characteristics to allow
generalizing to reality?
…. Of course, most research is neither purely applied nor purely basic; rather, it
incorporates some degree of both.
In both types of research there are tools required to produce and interpret
research. These tools are called “Research Methods”
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Quality research efforts always involve some or all of the
following components:
♦Identification and delimitation of a problem
♦Searching, reviewing, and effectively writing about relevant literature
♦Specifying and defining testable hypotheses
♦Designing the research to test the hypotheses
♦Selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants
♦Analyzing and reporting the results
♦Discussing the meaning and implications of the findings
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Practicality and accessibility
In an informative yet entertaining book on writing scientific papers, Day
(1983) related the story about two men riding in a hot-air balloon who
encountered some cloud coverage and lost their way. When they finally
descended, they did not recognize the terrain and had not the faintest idea
where they were. It so happened that they were drifting over the grounds of
one of our more famous scientific research institutes. When the balloonists
saw a man walking alongside a road, one of them called out, “Hey, mister,
where are we?” The man looked up, took in the situation, and after a few
moments of reflection said, “You’re in a hot-air balloon.” One balloonist
turned to the other and said, “I’ll bet that man is a researcher.” The other
balloonist asked, “What makes you think so?” The first replied, “His answer is
perfectly accurate and totally useless”
If we read and understand, we
can implement (use research as a
tool) and help others.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Reading research
If you are not knowledgeable about the subject matter, you cannot read the
research literature. Conversely, if you know the subject matter, you can
probably wade through the researcher’s jargon more effectively.
For example, if you know baseball and the researcher is recommending
that by shortening the radius, the hitter can increase the angular velocity, you
can figure out that the researcher means to choke up on the bat.
You must have a good foundation
of knowledge so you can speak
and comprehend the language of
your profession.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Reading research
Guidelines:
♦Become familiar with a few publications that contain pertinent
research in your field.You might get some help on choosing the
publications from a professor or librarian.
♦Read only studies that are of interest to you. That point may sound
too trite to mention, but some people feel obligated to wade
through every article.
♦Read it as a practitioner would. Do not look for eternal truths.
Look for ideas and indications. No study is proof of anything. Only
when it has been verified repeatedly does it constitute knowledge.
♦Read the abstract first. This approach saves time by helping you
determine whether you wish to read the whole thing. If you are still
interested, then you can read the study to gain better understanding
of the methodology and the interpretations, but do not get bogged
down with details.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Reading research
Guidelines:
♦ Do not be too concerned about statistical significance.
…..Understanding the concept of significance certainly helps, but a
little common sense serves you about as well as knowing the
difference between the .02 and the .01 levels, or a one-tailed test
versus a two-tailed test. Think in terms of meaningfulness. For
example, if two methods of teaching bowling result in an average
difference of 0.5 pins, what does it matter whether the difference is
significant? On the other hand, if a big difference is present but not
significant, further investigation is warranted, especially if the study
involved a small number of participants. Knowing the concepts of the
different types of statistical analysis is certainly helpful, but it is not
crucial to being able to read a study. Just skip that part.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Reading research
Guidelines:
♦ Be critical but objective. You can usually assume that a national
research journal selects studies for publication by the jury method.
Two or three qualified individuals read and judge the relevance of the
problem, the validity and reliability of the procedures, the efficacy of
the experimental design, and the appropriateness of the statistical
analysis. Certainly, some studies are published that should not be.Yet
if you are not an expert in research, you do not need to be
suspicious about the scientific worth of a study that appears in a
recognized journal. If it is too far removed from any practical
application to your situation, do not read it.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
UNSCIENTIFIC VERSUS SCIENTIFIC METHODS
OF PROBLEM SOLVING
Research is concerned with problem solving, which then may lead to new
knowledge. The problem-solving process involves several steps whereby the
problem is developed, defined, and delimited; hypotheses are formulated; data
are gathered and analyzed; and the results are interpreted with regard to the
acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. These steps are often referred to as
the scientific method of problem solving.
Unscientific Methods of Problem Solving
The methods are tenacity, intuition, authority, the rationalistic method, and the
empirical method.
Tenacity: People sometimes cling to certain beliefs despite the lack of
supporting evidence. Our superstitions are good examples of the method
called tenacity.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Unscientific Methods of Problem Solving
Intuition: Intuitive knowledge is sometimes considered to be common
sense or self-evident. Many self-evident truths, however, are subsequently
found to be false. One fundamental tenet of science is that we must be ever
cognizant of the importance of substantiating our convictions with factual
evidence.
Authority: Reference to some authority has long been used as a source
of knowledge. Although this approach is not necessarily invalid, it does
depend on the authority and on the rigidity of adherence. Perhaps the
most crucial aspect of the appeal to authority as a means of obtaining
knowledge is the right to question and to accept or reject the information.
Furthermore, the authority’s qualifications and the methods by which the
authority acquired the knowledge also determine the validity of this
source of information.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Unscientific Methods of Problem Solving
Rationalistic: Method In the rationalistic method, we derive knowledge
through reasoning. A good example is the following classic syllogism:
All men are mortal (major premise).
The emperor is a man (minor premise).
Therefore, the emperor is mortal (conclusion).
Although you probably would not argue with this reasoning, the key to this
method is the truth of the premises and their relationship to each other. For
example,
Basketball players are tall.
Tom Thumb is a basketball player.
Therefore, Tom Thumb is tall.
The conclusion is trustworthy only if it is derived from premises
(assumptions) that are true. Also, the premises may not in fact be
premises but rather descriptions of events or statements of fact. The
statements are not connected in a cause-and-effect manner. Reasoning is
fundamental in the scientific method of problem solving but cannot be
used by itself to arrive at knowledge.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Unscientific Methods of Problem Solving
Empirical Method : The word empirical (Describes data or a
study that is based on objective observations. )denotes experience
and the gathering of data. Certainly, data gathering is part of
the scientific method of solving problems.
But relying too much on your own experience (or data) has drawbacks.
• First, your own experience is limited.
• Furthermore, your retention depends substantially on how the events agree
with your experience and beliefs, on whether things “make sense,” and on
your state of motivation to remember.
Nevertheless, the use of data (and the empirical method) is high on the
continuum of methods of obtaining knowledge as long as you are aware of the
limitations of relying too heavily on this method.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Scientific Methods of Problem Solving
Step 1: Developing the Problem (Defining and Delimiting It)
To design and execute a sound investigation, the researcher must be
specific about what is to be studied and to what extent it will be studied.
Many ramifications constitute this step, an important one being the
identification of the independent variable and the dependent variables.
The independent variable is what the researcher is manipulating, and this
item is sometimes called the experimental, or treatment, variable.
The dependent variable (also called the yield) is the effect of the
independent variable. If you think of an experiment as a cause-and-effect
proposition, the cause is the independent variable and the effect is the
dependent variable.
Thus, the researcher must define exactly what will be studied and what
will be the measured effect. When this question is resolved, the
experimental design can be determined.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Scientific Methods of Problem Solving
Step 2: Formulating the Hypothesis
The hypothesis is the expected result. When a person sets out to
conduct a study, he or she generally has an idea as to what the outcome
will be. This anticipated solution to the problem may be based on some
theoretical construct, on the results of previous studies, or perhaps on
the experimenter’s experience and observations.
One of the essential
features about the
hypothesis is that it be
testable. The study must
be designed in such a
way that the hypothesis
can be either supported
or refuted. Obviously,
then, the hypothesis
cannot be a type of
value judgment or an
abstract phenomenon
that cannot be
observed.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Scientific Methods of Problem Solving
Step 3: Gathering the Data
The researcher must decide on the proper methods of acquiring the
necessary data to be used in testing the research hypothesis. The
reliability of the measuring instruments, the controls that are employed,
and the overall objectivity and precision of the data-gathering process are
crucial to solving the problem.
Planning the method, however, is one of the most difficult steps. Good
methods attempt to maximize both the internal validity and the external
validity of the study.
Internal validity —The extent to which the results of a study can be
attributed to the treatments used in the study. Internal validity
refers to the extent to which the results can be attributed to the
treatments used in the study. In other words, the researcher must
try to control all other variables that could influence the results.
External validity —The generalizability of the results of a study. o
what extent can the results apply to the real world?
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Planning the method, however, is one of the most difficult
steps. Good methods attempt to maximize both the
internal validity and the external validity of the study.
Internal vs. External Validity
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Step 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Results
• This step usually involves some statistical analysis.
• Analysis and interpretation require considerable knowledge,
experience, and insight.
•The researcher must provide evidence for the support or
rejection of the research hypothesis. In doing this, the researcher
also compares the results with those of others (the related literature)
and perhaps attempts to relate and integrate the results into some
theoretical model. Inductive reasoning is employed in this step
(whereas deductive reasoning is primarily used in the statement of the
problem). The researcher attempts to synthesize the data, and to
develop or substantiate a theory.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Alternative Models of Research
Normal science — An objective manner of
study grounded in the natural sciences that is
systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and
replicable.
Normal science is grounded in the natural sciences, which
have long adhered to the idea of the orderliness and
reality of matter, that nature’s laws are absolute and
discoverable by objective, systematic observations and
investigations that are not influenced by (in other words,
independent of) humans. The experiments are theory
driven and have testable hypotheses.
Challenges to Normal Science
Relatively recently (since about 1960), serious challenges have arisen regarding
normal science’s concept of objectivity (i.e., that the researcher can be
detached from the instruments and conduct of the experiment). From the first
inception of the idea for the hypothesis through the selection of apparatus to
the analysis of the results, the observer is involved.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Alternative Models of Research
Challenges to Normal Science
Normal science does not really evolve in systematic steps the way that
scientific writers describe it.
• The paradigm crisis (Development of discrepancies in a paradigm leading to
proposals of a new paradigm that better explains the data.) phenomenon, in which
researchers who have been following a particular paradigm begin to find
discrepancies in it.
•The findings no longer agree with the predictions, and a new paradigm is
advanced. Interestingly, the old paradigm does not die completely but only
develops varicose veins and fades away. Many researchers with a great
deal of time and effort invested in the old paradigm are reluctant to
change, so it is usually a new group of researchers who propose the new
paradigm.
•Thus, normal science progresses by revolution, with a new group of
scientists breaking away and replacing the old.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Alternative Models of Research
Challenges to Normal Science
Normal Science has been challenged with Qualitative Research.
Qualitative Research: Research method that often involves intensive,
long-time observation in a natural setting; precise and detailed recording
of what happens in the setting; interpretation and analysis of the data
using description, narratives, quotes, charts, and tables. Also called
ethnographic, naturalistic, interpretive, grounded, phenomenological,
subjective, and participant observational.
The naturalistic setting of qualitative research both facilitates analysis and precludes
precise control of so-called extraneous factors, as does much other research
occurring in field settings. The holistic interrelationship among observations and
the complexity and dynamic processes of human interaction make it impossible to
limit the study of human behavior to the sterile, reductionistic approach of normal
science. Reductionism, a characteristic of normal science, assumes that complex
behavior can be reduced, analyzed, and explained as parts that can then be put back
together as a whole and understood. Critics of the conventional approach to
research believe that the central issue is the unjustified belief that normal science is
the only source of true knowledge.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Types of Research
Analytical Research : As the name implies, analytical research involves indepth study and evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain
complex phenomena. The different types of analytical research are historical,
philosophic, reviews, and research synthesis.
Historical Research : Obviously, historical research deals with events
that have already occurred. Historical research focuses on events,
organizations, institutions, and people.
Philosophic Research : Critical inquiry characterizes philosophic
research. The researcher establishes hypotheses, examines and analyzes
existing facts, and synthesizes the evidence into a workable theoretical
model. Many of the most important problem areas must be dealt with by
the philosophic method.
.
Problems dealing with objectives,
curricula, course content,
requirements, and methodology are
but a few of the important issues that
can be resolved only through the
philosophic method of problem
Research Methods in Physical Activity
solving.
Types of Research
Reviews : A review is a critical evaluation of recent research on a
particular topic. The author must be extremely knowledgeable about the
available literature as well as the research topic and procedures. A review
involves analysis, evaluation, and integration of the published literature, often
leading to important conclusions concerning the research findings up to that
time
Research Synthesis : Reviews of literature are difficult to write because
they require that a large number of studies be synthesized to determine
common underlying findings, agreements, or disagreements. To some
extent this is like trying to make sense of data collected on a large number
of participants by simply looking at the data. A quantitative means of
analyzing the findings from numerous studies is called a meta-analysis.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research : A type of research that attempts to describe the
status of the study’s focus. Common techniques are questionnaires, interviews,
normative surveys, case studies, job analyses, observational research,
developmental studies, and correlation studies.
Three different types of survey research techniques:
1. Questionnaire : The main justification for using a questionnaire is the
need to obtain responses from people, often from a wide geographical
area. The questionnaire usually strives to secure information about
present practices, conditions, and demographic data. Occasionally, a
questionnaire asks for opinions or knowledge.
2. Interview : The interview and the questionnaire are essentially the
same technique insofar as planning and procedures are concerned.
Obviously, the interview has certain advantages over the questionnaire.
The researcher can rephrase questions and ask additional ones to
clarify responses and secure results that are more valid.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Three different types of survey research techniques
(continued) :
3. Normative Survey : A number of notable
normative surveys have been conducted in the fields
of physical activity and health. The normative survey
generally seeks to gather performance or knowledge
data on a large sample from a population and to
present the results in the form of comparative
standards, or norms.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Other Descriptive Research Techniques
Case Study : The case study is used to provide detailed information about
an individual (or institution, community, and so on). It aims to determine
unique characteristics about the subject or condition. This descriptive
research technique is used widely in such fields as medicine, psychology,
counseling, and sociology. The case study is also a technique used in
qualitative research.
Job Analysis : This type of research is a special form of case study. It is
done to describe the nature of a particular job, including the duties,
responsibilities, and preparation required for success in the job.
Observational Research : Observational research is a descriptive
technique in which behaviors are observed in the participants’ natural
setting, such as the classroom or play environment.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Other Descriptive Research Techniques
Developmental Studies : In developmental research, the investigator is
usually concerned with the interaction of learning or performance with
maturation.
Developmental research can be undertaken by what is called the
longitudinal method, whereby the same participants are studied over a
period of years. Obvious logistical problems are associated with
longitudinal studies, so an alternative is to select samples of participants
from different age groups to assess the effects of maturation. This is
called the cross-sectional approach.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Other Descriptive Research Techniques
Correlation Studies : The purpose of correlation research is to examine
the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher may wish to
predict percentage of body fat from skinfold measurements. Correlation
research is descriptive in that you cannot presume a cause-and-effect
relationship. All that can be established is that an association is (or is not)
present between two or more traits or performances.
Epidemiologic Research This type of research pertains to the
frequencies and distributions of health and disease conditions among
various populations. Rate of occurrence is the basic concept in
epidemiologic studies. The size of the population being studied is an
important consideration in examining the prevalence of such things as
injuries, illnesses, or health conditions in a specified at-risk population.
Although cause and effect cannot be established by incidence and
prevalence data, a strong inference of causation can often be made through
association.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Experimental and Qualitative Research
Experimental research has a major advantage over other types of
research in that the researcher can manipulate treatments to cause things to
happen (i.e., a cause-and-effect situation can be established).
In experimental research, the researcher attempts to control all factors except
the experimental (or treatment) variable. If the extraneous factors can be
successfully controlled, then the researcher can presume that the changes in the
dependent variable are due to the independent variable.
Qualitative research : Qualitative research is
different from other research methods. Qualitative
research rarely establishes hypotheses at the beginning
of the study, but instead uses more general questions
to guide the study. It proceeds in an inductive process
in developing hypotheses and theory as the data unfold.
The researcher is the primary instrument in data
collection and analysis. Qualitative research is
characterized by intensive firsthand presence. The
tools of data collection are observation, interviews, and
researcher-designed instruments
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Mixed Methods or Mixed Models of Research
In this approach both quantitative and qualitative approaches are included
(or mixed) within a research effort. This approach, often viewed as a
pragmatic one, suggests that both qualitative and quantitative techniques are
useful when studying real-world phenomena.
For mixed methods, qualitative and quantitative techniques are integrated, or
mixed, within a single study. For mixed models, it is like two small studies,
one quantitative and one qualitative.
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Overview of the Research Methods
Research Methods in Physical Activity
END OF PRESENTATION
Research Methods in Physical Activity