Chapter 2
Thinking Sociologically
Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications,
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Giants of Classical Sociological
Theory
• Karl Marx (1818-1883; German)
• Theorists have built on his work and others have
created theories opposing his work.
• Macro-theorist who focused on the structure of
capitalist society
• Defined capitalism as an economic system based
on the capitalists (the owners of the means of
production) exploiting the proletariat (the workers)
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Giants of Classical Sociological
Theory
• Max Weber (1864-1920; German)
• Best known for his work The Protestant Work
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
• Protestantism, especially Calvinism, led to the
rise of capitalism in the West and not in other
areas of the world.
• Was also interested on the process of
rationalization in many sectors of society
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Giants of Classical Sociological
Theory
• Emile Durkheim (1858-1917; French)
• Macro-theorist whose major concern was social
facts, such as social structures and cultural
norms and values, that impose themselves on
people
• Called the shared beliefs of a society the
collective conscience
• Wrote the book Suicide in which he stated that
the cause of suicide was not to be found within
individuals, but rather in social factors
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Other Important Early Theorists
• Georg Simmel (1858-1918; German)
• Interested in the forms taken by social interaction and
the types of people who engage on interaction
• W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963; American)
• Pioneering researcher who was crucial to the later
focus of sociology on race
• Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929; American)
• Main concern was the way the upper classes show off
their wealth (what he called “Conspicuous
Consumption”)
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Structural/Functional Theories
• Structural-Functionalism
• Examines both social structures and their
functions
• The dominant view is that if certain structures
exist they provide a function.
• Manifest functions are positive consequences
that are purposely brought about.
• Latent functions are unintended positive
consequences.
• Dysfunctions negatively affect the ability of a
given system to survive.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Structural/Functional Theories
• Structuralism
• Focuses on structures but is not concerned with
their functions
• Interested in the social impact of hidden or
underlying structures (for example, gender
relations)
• Debunking is the idea that visible social
structures are mere facades.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Conflict Theory
• Focus is on what is negative about society
• Society is held together by coercion.
• Conflict theorists see dissension and tension
and struggle everywhere.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Critical Theory
• Focuses on the culture of a society, particularly
the culture industry and mass culture
• Two elements of the culture industry are of
concern:
• Falseness (true culture should emanate from
the people)
• Repressiveness (mass culture pacifies and
stupefies the masses)
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Feminist Theory
• Is critical of the social situation facing women
• Offers ideas on how women’s situations can
be bettered
• The majority of feminist scholars argue that
gender differences are socially constructed
(not biologically determined).
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Feminist Theory
• Women face extraordinary problems related
to gender inequality, so extraordinary
solutions are necessary.
• Some feminist theorists suggest social
structure and institutions need to be changed
to be more inclusive of women.
• Other feminist theorists argue that those very
institutions need to be deconstructed and
rebuilt.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Queer Theory
• Based on the idea that there are no fixed and
stable identities that determine who we are
• Advocates believe that modern Western
culture cannot be understood without
critiquing modern definitions of homosexuality
and heterosexuality.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Queer Theory
• The focus is not on homosexuality itself but
the dynamics between heterosexuals and
homosexuals.
• In the early phases of development
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Critical Theories of Race and Racism
• Race matters globally and racism adversely
affects people of color.
• Argue that color blindness ignores the unique
experiences of racial minorities and that color
blindness is the new racism
• Intersectionality is the idea that racism cannot be
considered in isolation.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Postmodern Theory
• Postmodernity is the state of society beyond
the modern era.
• Postmodernity states that the world is
nonrational or even irrational.
• Postmodernity is characterized by eclecticism.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Conflict/Critical Theories
• Postmodern Theory
• Postmodernism is the emergence of new and
different cultural forms in music, movies, art,
architecture, etc.
• Postmodern theory is a theoretical orientation
that is a reaction against modern theory.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Inter/actionist Theories
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Concerned with the interaction of two or more
people through the use of symbols
• Symbols allow the communication of meaning
among a group of people.
• Interested in how various aspects of identity
are created and sustained through social
interaction
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Inter/actionist Theories
• Ethnomethodology
• The focus is on what people do, rather than what
they think.
• Regard people’s lives and social words as
practical accomplishments that are extraordinary
• Many ethnomethodologists study conversations.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Inter/actionist Theories
• Exchange Theory
• Interested in behavior and the rewards and
costs associated with it
• Interested in social behavior that involves
tangible and intangible exchanges
• Through these interactions people are seen
as rational profit seekers.
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Contemporary Sociological Theory:
Inter/actionist Theories
• Rational Choice Theory
• The basic principle is that people act intentionally
in order to achieve basic goals.
• People choose how to achieve goals on the
basis of utility.
• Understands that people do not always act
rationally, but these are deviations from the norm
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