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Period 5
.
Scientist’s Early Theories on
the Atom
By Corey Lacher
and Grant Miller
my.opera.com
http://www.nndb.com/people/790/000087529/
Democritus
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• He was born into considerable wealth which allowed
him to travel and research more than a common
citizen
• He studied in Egypt at the ancient schools, which
specialized in philosophy and mathematics.
• After he finished his studies, he was impoverished
and considered insane among his people.
• Leucippus was Democritus’ mentor.
Leucippus
• His date of birth or his parents’ status is
unknown, however it is estimated that
he was born into the upper middle class
• A lot of Leucippus’ theories are to
contradict his teacher, Zeno
• After growing up, he moved to Abdera
where he began his own studies with
his student Democritus.
reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leucippus/#2
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Democritus Atomic and
Leucippus Theory
• Because of the close relationship between Leucippus
and Democritus, their atomic theories are very alike.
• The first theory, created by Leucippus said there is an
infinite amount of two elements, the solids and the
void.
• This theory was changed during Democritus’s
studies, and finally published.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leucippus/#2
Atomic Theory
• Proposed atomic theory of matter
• Proposed that contrary to belief matter
could not be divided forever
• Proposed the idea of an atom-the
smallest matter can be divided and still
be the same substance
http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/democritus/democritus.htm
britannica.com.ph
Aristotle
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• Greek philosopher
• Student of Plato, teacher of Alexander the
Great
• Educated as aristocracy
• Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics,
Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics,
important works
• Studied many sciences
• Scientific method
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
Atomic Theory
• Proposed matter can divided infinitely
• Due to being highly regarded as
scholar, stuck for 2000 years
http://cstl-csm.semo.edu/mcgowan/ch181/atomhist.htm
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Antoine Lavoisier
and The Law of Conservation of
Matter
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By John Chiavelli and Joey
Miller
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Biography
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•
Born to a wealthy Paris family and completed a degree in law
•
He dreamed of studying mathematics and science, and soon gained
membership into France’s most prestigious Science Academy
•
He married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who became his scientific colleague
•
She translated notes, drew sketches, and developed a scientific mind
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Continued…
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•
Known for the Law of Conservation of Matter/Mass
•
Implemented the Metric System in France
•
Would go on to be the architect of the chemistry revolution
•
Known as the Father of Modern Chemistry
•
Guillotined at age 51, found guilty of conspiracy against the people of France
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The Phlogiston Theory
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•
Chemistry was very underdeveloped at the time
•
A weightless or nearly weightless substance known as phlogiston. Metals and fire were
considered to be rich in phlogiston and earth was considered oxygen poor
•
Stated that weight loss during combustion was a result of a loss of phlogiston
•
When metal is calcined, or roasted in the presence of air, it turns to a powdery substance
called a calx
•
However, when some metals were calcined, the resulting calx was heavier than the
initial metal
•
Scientists tried to come up with explanations, but the theory was WRONG***
The Law of Conservation of
Matter/Mass
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•
Was an anti-phlogistonist
•
Designed an experiment to disprove the theory
•
He heated mercury in a jar for 12 days, red mercury calx formed, and the volume of air
in the jar decreased
•
The remaining air was nitrogen, and heating the calx produced the air that had decreased
•
The sequence of experimentation established that heat caused the formation of calx, and
stronger heating reverted it back to the original substances
•
Hg(l) + O2(g) -> HgO(s) and then HgO(s) -> Hg(l) + O2(g)
•
THEORY DISPPROVED
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• ***The law of conservation of matter states that matter is neither lost
nor gained in traditional chemical reactions; it simply changes
form.***
• The state in which a substance is may change in a chemical reaction,
for example, from a solid to liquid to a gas but its total mass does not
change.
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Significance of Concept
• Changed chemistry from qualitative to quantitative science
• Put an end to the Phlogiston Theory, by proving that the mass of the
reactants is equal to that of the products
• He later showed that oxygen was responsible for weight differences
associated with combustion
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Continued…
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• Acceptance of the Phlogiston Theory dissipated
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• The Law of Conservation of Matter became accepted
• A major turning point in the world of chemistry
• Chemistry further developed into a vast scientific field
• Antoine Lavoisier is known as the Father of Modern Chemistry
Joseph Proust
. Born on Sept. 26, 1754 in Angers, France
. His father was apothecary of Angers
. Studied chemistry in father’s shop
. Became apothecary at prestigious Salpetriere
hospital
. Taught chemistry with famous chemist and
physicist Pilâtre de Rozier
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http://en.wikivisual.com/index.php/Joseph_Proust
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-proust
Joseph Proust’s Later Life
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. Went to Spain to teach at Chemistry School of
Segovia and University of Salamanca
. Napoleon invaded Spain and his army burnt
Proust’s laboratory
. Forced to go back to France as a result
. Died on July 5, 1826 in Angers
. During his lifetime, studied the sugars in fruits and
vegetables (glucose) and created the Law of
Definitive Proportions
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall0
3/pfeiffer/university.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Proust
Law of Definite Proportions
-A chemical compound contains
the same proportions of elements
by mass
-All of one type of compounds
have the same make up
-Ex:The mass of Pure water is
always 8/9ths oxygen and 1/9
hydrogen
-Makes up part of modern
chemistry
Law of Definite Proportions
(Exceptions)
-The law is not always true
-Non-stoichiometric compounds composition
can vary from sample to sample
-Chemical Compounds with compositions that
can not be defined by ratios of real numbers
-Ex:Iron Oxide Wustile- Levels and mass of
oxygen and iron can differ
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_definite_proportions
Effect Upon Chemistry Society
•
•
•
Initially upon first publish there was much
controversy among fellow chemists
especially Berthollet, who believed the
opposite of what Proust was trying to
say; elements could come in any
proportion.
The laws of definite proportion created
the basis for the development of the
atomic theory by John Dalton mere years
later.
Dalton also came up with the law of
multiple proportions, which in
combination with the law of definite
proportions, helped to begin
stoichiometry (the science of chemical
reactions).
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Effect Upon Chemistry Society (cont’d)
•
His law helped lead to chemists being able to create compounds and learn
their properties more because knowing the ratio of elements is all they
need. Naturally its also useful in identifying compounds.
•Although it is a chemistry principle it does have its practical uses.
•This law makes it easy to modify a baking recipe according to the amount
you want to produce.
- For example,
we know that
Steel is always
almost
completely made
of Iron with a bit
of Carbon and
other small
elements.
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http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/480555/Joseph-Louis-Proust/260847/Law-of-definite-proportions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_definite_proportions
http://www.ehow.com/about_4570091_law-definite-proportions.html
John Dalton
• Born: September 6th,
1766 in Eaglesfield,
England
• Died: July 27th, 1844 of
a stroke
• English chemist and
physicist
http://www.universetoday.com/38193/john-daltonsatomic-theory/
http://dl.clackamas.edu/ch104-04/dalton%27s.htm
http://www.nndb.com/people/278/000049131/
Background Information
•
•
•
•
Had two siblings: Jonathon and Mary
Was a farmer for two years
Discovered color blindness
Learned math from a distant relative, Elihu
Robinson
• Went to work at a school in Kendal for his
cousin George
• Became a teacher at York College
• Is most widely known for his atomic theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Elements are made of small particles called
atoms.
• All atoms for a particular element are identical
and have the same mass.
• Atoms of different elements can combine in a
chemical reaction to form chemical
compounds in fixed ratios.
• [In a chemical reaction] atoms cannot be
created or destroyed; only rearranged.
The Atomic Theory:
Explanation/Significance
• It explains a lot of chemical properties; for example,
how atoms can combine to form molecules
• It explains chemical change better than previous
theories (the Particle Theory) had
• It confirms the basic laws of chemistry: Definite
Proportions and Conservation of Mass
The Law of Multiple Proportions
--Also known as “Dalton’s Law”
-- It is part of what laid the foundation for
Dalton’s atomic theory, and the basis of
chemical formulas for compounds
-States that when elements combine in more
than one proportion, they do so in the ratio
of small who numbers (under the
assumption that they have the same type of
chemical bond)
--Example: carbon and oxygen react to form CO
or CO2, but not CO1.4
Law of Multiple Proportions
(continued)
Example:
2 carbon oxides: CO and CO2
The ratio for the first is 1/1
The ratio for the second is 1/2
The ratio between these ratios
is a ratio between small whole
numbers, or
1/1 : 1/2= 2:1
- This proves that the law is
consistent with the use of
chemical formulas
JJ THOMSON
CATHODE RAY TUBE
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Full Name: Joseph John Thomson
December 18, 1856 – August 30 1940
Born in Cheetham Hill in Manchester, England
Private School Education
Attended Owens College at age 14
JJ THOMSON
•Transferred to Trinity College after his father died
•Became Cavendish Professor of Physics, with Ernest
Rutherford as a student
•Married Rose Elizabeth Paget, daughter of a physician,
and fathered one son and one daughter
•Seven of his research assistants got Nobel Prizes and his
son won in 1937 for proving the wavelike properties of
electrons
•He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906 in recognition of
the great merits of his theoretical and experimental
investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases
•In 1918 he became master of Trinity College, Cambridge
and remained there until his death in 1940
CATHODE RAY TUBE
•Thompson investigated the nature of matter which led
him to create an experiment testing a charged particle
•In the Cathode Ray Tube, an electric current generates a
beam that strikes through a hole on the other end of the
tube
•A fluorescent coating is added to the ray to make it
visible to human eyes
•There is a magnetic field around the ray, proving that it
has mass
•The rays path is also affected by an external electric
field, determining that the ray is charged
CATHODE RAY TUBE
•By studying the deflections of the tube due to the fields,
Thompson determined the mass to charge ratio of the
beam particles
•He found the mass-to-charge ratio to be thousands of
times smaller than hydrogen, the lightest element,
meaning they were extremely light or very highly charged
•He discovered that the beam was negatively charged
SIGNIFICANCE
•his research proved the existence of negatively charged
particles, later called electrons
•proved atoms can be divided
•Created the plum pudding model of the atom which was
later proved wrong by Ernest Rutherford
•Lead to later experiments with the electron
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SIGNIFICANCE
•Contribution in the development of cathode ray tubes
•Lead to research in subatomic particles
•When a solid object was put in the path of cathode rays
a shadow appeared showing that cathode rays traveled in
straight lines.
•The cathode rays were deflected by electric and
magnetic fields meaning they were composed of charged
particles.
•When a paper wheel was placed in the path of the
cathode rays, the cathode rays struck it and made it
rotate, proving that cathode rays were made of particles
Robert Milikan Background:
-March 22, 1868 - December 19, 1953
-Went to high school in Iowa (lived in a rural era)
-Went to Oberlin College and then Columbia University
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-Wife = Greta Erwin Blanchar
-Three sons: Clark Blanchard, Glenn Allen, and Max Franklin
-Received his Ph.D. in 1895
-Made numerous discoveries in the fields of electricity, optics, and
molecular physics (contributions to science were with the research of
cosmic rays).
-Was an author (wrote in scientific journals) that were really wellrespected in science community
Robert Milikan Background:
•Held highly esteemed scientific positions:
•President of the American Physical
Society
•Vice-President of the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science
•Held honorary doctor’s degrees from 25
universities
Qu i c k T i m e ™ a n d a
d e c o m p re s s o r
a re n e e d e d to s e e th i s p i c t u re .
•Set a goal to write textbooks that would
capture the attention of readers that was easy
to understand
•Vice-Chairman of the National Research
Council during WWI playing a major part in
developing anti-submarine and
meteorological devices
http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/robertmillikan.html
The Experiment: Oil-Drop
-Major success was determining
charge of an electron, using the
elegant "falling-drop method"
called Milikan Oil Drop
-Proved that electric charge is
quantized (as predicted by
quantum physics)
-Discovery was accomplished by
spraying minute drops of oil into a
specially built chamber
Qu i c k T i m e ™ a n d a
d e c o m p re s s o r
a re n e e d e d to s e e th i s p i c t u re .
http://millikan.nbaoh.com/1.htm
The Experiment: Oil-Drop
-How the experiment operated:
1. Atomizer produces oil droplets
2. Oil Droplets fall through the hole
3. X-rays negatively charge the droplets
4. Voltage applied to 2 plates creates an electric field and the electric
force pulls some oil drops up
5. Microscope measures the rate at which the oil drops fall or rise
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Simplifi ed_scheme_of_Millikan%E2%80%99s_
oil-drop_experiment.png
The Experiment: Oil-Drop
-Drops travel up/down depending on
the forces acting on it
-1st: experiment is done without
an electric field = gravity pulls
the drops down because its
force is greater than air
resistance
-Then done W/ electric field =
electric force larger than
gravitational pull causing
droplets to go up
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find velocity (velocity is related to
charge), thus finding the charge of
an electron
W/O Electric Field
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W/ Electric Field
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Significance of the
Experiment
-First successful scientific
attempt to detect and measure
the effect of an individual
subatomic particle
-The Millikan oil drop experiment
was so significant that Millikan
won the 1923 Nobel Prize in
physics for his work
Add picture here
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http://www.chemteam.info/Gallery/Gallery15.html
Significance of the Experiment
-Expanded upon Cathode-Ray
experiment which determined
mass/charge ratio but didn’t determine
the numbers for it
- He determined the numbers
for
the ratio
-Determined charge of electron through
oil-drop experiment
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-Determined that an electron is a subatomic particle
-Determined that charge is quantized
http://www.goalfinder.com/product.asp?productid=69
• 1871- 1937
• “Father of nuclear physics”
• Early on in his life, he developed a
device to detect electromagnetic waves
•Left home in New Zealand to
study at Caterbury University as a research
student on a scholarship
•His professor, J.J. Thompson recognized
his potential and invited Rutherford to
work with him
• After radioactive atoms were discovered,
he became highly interested in
radioactivity
• He discovered that radioactive atoms
gave off two different types of rays: alpha
and beta rays (alpha= made up of positively
charged particles; beta= made up of negatively
charged particles
• Returned to New Zealand for marriage but
continued his research at McGill University
• He researched into radioactivity,
discovering radon
• Published the book, Radioactivity, and won the
Noble Prize in chemistry for his work on the
transmutation of elements and the chemistry
of radioactive substances
• Is most famous for his Gold Foil Experiment
• Rutherford came up with the earliest version of the atomic
model when he conducted his gold foil experiment
•When firing alpha particles
at a fine sheet of gold foil, he
found that some particles
pass through the foil, while
some change direction or
pass back
• He concluded that the
atoms of gold foil must be
mostly empty space around
a dense nucleus and came
up with his atomic model
1. Downfall of the Plum Pudding Model
2. Creation of the Atomic Model
• J.J Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model claimed
that the negatively charged electrons were
embedded in a sphere of positive charge so
the charges were balanced
• WAS INCORRECT since none of Thompson’s
electrons contained enough charge or mass
to deflect alphas strongly
• ** INSTEAD, Rutherford suggested in his
Atomic Model that a large amount of the
atoms charge and mass is instead
concentrated into a very small region giving it
a high electric field
• Rutherford propsed that the atom was
mostly empty space
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Sir James Chadwick
1891 - 1974
Early Life
•
•
•
•
Born October 20, 1891
Born in Cheshire, England
Graduated from Honours School of Physics in 1911
Studied under Ernest Rutherford in the Physical
Laboratory in Manchester for 2 years
• Gained his Master of Science degree in 1913
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Scientific Context
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• Ernest Rutherford recently discovers
the proton
• Henri Becquerel recently discovers
gamma waves
• Beginning to develop accurate
atomic model
Experiment
• Sample of Beryllium bombarded with
alpha particles (type of radiation)
• Caused Beryllium to emit different
radiation
• Knew radiation was neutral because it
was not affected by a magnetic field
• Knew the particles were large because
they discharged protons
Experiment
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Discoveries
• Leads to discovery of the neutron
(1932)
• Discovers mass of the neutron
Significance
• Previously, mass number was always
much higher than atomic number
• Neutrons solved this problem
• Atomic model more accurate
• Receives Nobel Prize in Physics in
1935
• Knighted in 1945
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Significance
• Made the development of the atomic
bomb possible
• Now understood how isotopes worked
• Used uranium 235 to create bomb
• Chadwick worked on Manhattan Project
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Niels Bohr and the Bohr
Model
By Tim Hwang and Noah Pardes
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Born: October 7, 1885
Died: November 18, 1962
http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95oct/nbohr.html
About Niels Bohr
• Born in Copenhagen, Denmarck on October 7,
1885
• His father is Christian Bohr who was a professor
of physiology at the University of Copenhagen.
• His mother is Ellen Adler Bohr.
• His brother is Harald Bohr who was a
mathematician
• Enrolled as an undergrad at the University of
Copenhagen in 1903 and graduated with a
doctrine in 1911.
• Marries Margrethe Nørlund in 1912.
About Niels Bohr Cont.
• In 1913, he published his theory on the
structure of the atom which was based on
Rutherford’s theory.
• Niels Bohr becomes the professor of physics
at the University of Copenhagen in 1916.
• He died in Copenhagen on November 18,
1962
Main Point
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and
energy.
• The energy of the orbit is related to its size. The lowest energy is
found in the smallest orbit.
• Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from
one orbit to another.
• The simplest example of the Bohr Model is for the hydrogen
atom (Z = 1) or for a hydrogen-like ion (Z > 1), in which a
negatively-charged electron orbits a small positively-charged
nucleus-char
Main Point Cont.
• When an electron is in an "allowed" orbit it does not radiate.
Thus the model simply throws out classical electromagnetic
theory
• When an electron absorbs energy from incident electromagnetic
radiation, it "quantum jumps" into a higher energy allowed state.
This higher energy state corresponds to an allowed orbit with a
higher value of the integer n
• When an electron is in a higher energy state, it can quantum
jump into a lower energy state, one with a smaller value of n,
emitting all of its energy as a single photon of electromagnetic
energy
Significance
• The significance of the Bohr model is that it states
that the laws of classical mechanics do not apply to
the motion of the electron about the nucleus
• Bohr proposed rather that a new kind of mechanics,
or quantum mechanics, describes the motion of the
electrons around the nucleus
• The Rutherford-Bohr model provided the first really
useful view of the atom
• It matched what scientists knew about chemical
reactions and the way atoms behaved
Significance Cont.
• It matched what scientist knew about chemical
reactions and the way atoms behaved
• The Bohr model of the atom deals specifically with
the behavior of electrons in the atom
• While he realized electrodynamics is useless, he
proposed to use "mechanics" to describe the motion
of an electron in its orbit
Work Cited
• http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95oct/nbohr.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr
• http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1
922/bohr-bio.html
• http://chemistry.about.com/od/atomicstructure/a/bohrmodel.htm
• http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/BohrMo
del/BohrModel.html
• http://www.lycos.com/info/bohr-model--electrons.html
• http://www.chemteam.info/Electrons/Bohr-Modelpart1.html
Citations
• http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.
php?mid=56
• http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/
Lavoisier.html
• http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200R
projs/lavoisier2/home.html#phlogiston
Citations
http://martine.people.cofc.edu/111LectWeek1.
htm?referrer=webcluster&
-http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Carbon_
with_oxygen.JPG
-http://www.iscid.org/encyclopedia/Law_of_M
ultiple_Proportions
-http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/law+o
f+multiple+proportions
-http://www.brightstorm.com/science/chemistr
y/matter/law-of-definite-proportions-law-ofmultiple-proportionss
http://letsgotribe.mlblogs.com/archives/2007/10/the_tribe_pulls.html
http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=periodic-table-quiz
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/684121/ch
emical-bonding/43364/The-law-of-conservation-ofhttp://www.famousdead.com/antoine-lavoisie
masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_picture_candidates/Antoine_Lavoisier
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lavoisier_decomposition_air.png
http://www.philiplarson.com/e1.shtml
http://www.solarpowerwindenergy.org/wpcontent/uploads/2009/05/kineticandpotentialenergy.j
http://www.homeoint.org/morrell/articles/pm_origin.htm
pg
http://cstl-csm.semo.edu/mcgowan/ch181/atomhist.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/3659/energy/matterandene
rgy.html
http://www.iss.k12.nc.us/schools/mountmourne/lalerch/shmetric.htm
http://www.ssplprints.com/image.php?id=100610
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.p
hp?mid=56http://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/timothy.hitchings.atomichistory.fall.2009
http://www.rjdposters.com/Store/DrawProdu
http://sciencepark.etacude.com/chemistry/law.php
cts.aspx?Action=GetDetails&ProductID=621
&ParentID=&PageID=75
http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Lavoisier.
html
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/combustion.html
http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rp
rojs/lavoisier2/home.html#phlogiston http://www.silkywater.com/waterintro.htm
http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~sander/chem-intro.html
http://www.ehow.com/about_4568411_lawhttp://www.scienceshorts.com/lavois.htm
conservation-mass.htmlhttps://www.msu.edu/~moorean4/TestSite/chemistrymain.htm
SOURCES Thomson
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/AtomicStructure/JJThomps
on.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson
http://www.experiment-resources.com/cathode-ray.html
http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page3.html
http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/jj-thomson-cathode-ray-tube
freepatentsonline.com
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/chemistry/gilbert2/tutorials/
interface.asp?chapter=chapter_02&folder=cathode_ray
Citations Millikan
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/m illikan-bio.html
http://www.ww norton.com/college/chemistry/gilbert2/tutorials/interface.asp?chapter=cha
pter_02&folder=millikan
http://www. light-science.com/millikan.html
http://www.goalfinder.com/product.asp?productid=69
http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/millikanoildrop.html
http://chemistry.about.com/od/electronicstructure/a/millikan-oil-dropexperiment.htm
http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/ryan_mcallister/slide3.htm
•
http://christchurchcitylibraries.com/kids/famo
usnewzealanders/ernest.asp
•
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
• http://mysciencearticles.com/page/8/
•http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c-art/41549/18103/Shell-atomic-model-In-theshell-atomic-model-electrons-occupy
•http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/HTbt
GA9m7iMKVP8ry_drhw
•http://reichchemistry.wikispaces.com/Fall.2008.MMA.Hale
y.Timeline
•http://www.natlib.govt.nz/collections/onlineexhibitions/20th-century-scientists/ernestrutherford
Sources Chadwick
• http://www.suite101.com/content/the-discovery-ofthe-neutron-a46060
• http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1
935/chadwick-bio.html
• Portrait:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1
935/chadwick-bio.html
• Nobel Prize Image:
http://startswithabang.com/?p=982
• Rutherford Image:
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios/ErnestRutherfo
rd.html
Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronz
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/neutrondis.html
http://www.suite101.com/content/the-discovery-ofthe-neutron-a46060
Becquerel Image:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureat
es/1903/becquerel-bio.html
Mushroom Cloud Image:
http://www.allamericanpatriots.com/photos/mushr
oom-cloud