Package 3
Products: modern fuels, high-tech
lubricants, raw materials for the
petrochemical and chemical industry,
alternative fuels
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Modern fuels: gasoline
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Otto engines
Four-stroke:
Intake of fuel-air mixture
Compression of the
mixture and timed
ignition
Combustion and
expansion (working
stroke)
Exhaust of combustion
gases
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Modern fuels: gas oil
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Diesel engine
The fuel-air mixture is
heterogeneous, the
ignition is thermal
Fuel is injected into
the heated air shortly
before the end of the
compression stroke,
where it self-ignites.
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Quality of
gasoline
Octane number
Determination in comparative
measurement, n-heptane has 0
octane number, 2,2,4-trimethyl
pentane(iso-octane) has 100
octane number.
Measurement in a one-cylinder,
four-stroke test engine, it has a
mechanically adjustable
compression ratio. The
compression ratio is increased
until „knocking” occurs. The fuel’s
octane number is coming from the
composition of the n-heptane-isooctane mixture, which gives the
same knock level.
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Quality of
gasoline
Volatility: balanced
distillation performance
Benzene content
Aromatic content
Sulfur content
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Gasoline components
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Straight-run gasoline
Thermally cracked gasoline
Catalytically cracked gasoline
Catalytic reformate
Isomerizate
Alkylate
Polymer gasoline
Oxygenates (MTBE, ETBE)
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Quality of Diesel fuels (gas oil)
Ignition quality
Cetane number
Determination in
comparative
measurement, methylnaphtalene has 0 cetane
number, cetane (nhexadecane) has 100
cetane number.
Measurement in a onecylinder, four-stroke test
engine, ignition delay can
be altered, varying the
compression ratio or
throttling the qantity of
intake air.
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Quality of Diesel fuels (gas oil)
Density
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Sulfur content
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Viscosity
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Deposit formation
Cold flow properties (summer and winter gas oils)
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Diesel fuel
components
Straight-run middle distillate
Thermally cracked gas oil
Catalytically cracked gas oil
Hydrocracked gas oil
Synthetic diesel fuel: SMDS (Shell Middle
Distillate Synthesis) from natural gas
through steam reforming, FischerTropsch synthesis, isomerization,
distillation
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Fuel additives
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Gasoline additives
Antiknock agents: lead
compounds
Antioxidants: amines and
phenols
Metal deactivators
Corrosion inhibitors
Anti-icing agents
Detergents: avoiding deposits
on injectors, ensure intake
valve cleanliness
Additives for combatting
combustion chamber deposits
Spark aider additives
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Additives for diesel fuel
Ignition improvers (formation of free
radicals upon decomposition)
Detergent additives
Soot suppressors-combustion
enhancers
Cold-flow additives (avoid wax
crystallization)
Flow improvers (EVA copolymers)
Cloud point depressants
Wax antisettling additives
Additives for improving lubricity
Additives for increasing storage
stability
Dehazers
Biocides
Antistatic additives
Antifoam additives
Reodorants
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Aviation Turbine Fuels
Kerosene type fractions
Desirable crudes are low in sulfur (sweet crudes), low in n-hydrocarbons
(nonwaxy crudes), low in aromatic content, and high in product boiling
between 160 and 290 °C.
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Bulk properties
 Density.
 Specific Energy
 Volatility
 Combustion
 Elastomer Compatibility
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Trace Properties
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Oxidative Stability
Corrosivity
Water Separation
Static Electricity
Low-Temperature Operability
Nonspecification Properties : Absolute Vapor Pressure, Water Miscibility,
Lubricity
Additives : Oxidation Inhibitors, Metal Deactivators, Corrosion
Inhibitors and Lubricity Improvers, Static Dissipater Additives (SDAs),
Anti-icing additive, Biocides, Thermal Stability Additives
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Typical viscosities vs. temperature for jet fuel
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True vapor pressures for jet fuel
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The source of jet fuel will be the crude oil distillate in the next decades.
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Fuel standardization and testing
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DIN and ASTM testing methods
Storage and transportation
Storage: floating and fixed-roof
tanks
Transportation: pipelines, tank
ships, rail tankers, road tank trucks
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Route of liquid
hydrocarbons from
the well to the
consumer
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Alternative fuels
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Petrochemical and chemical raw materials
Ethylene production (as a percentage of total ethylene produced)
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Feedstock requirements for a 500 000 t/a
ethylene plant
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The cracking furnace
Linde-Pyrocrack coils
Typical arrangement of furnace
elements
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Cracking
yields for
various
feedstocks
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Approximate energy consumption to
produce 1 kg of ethylene from various
feedstocks
The olefin production is very energy intensive, the feasibility depends
on energy prices and energy integration of the olefin plant.
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Refinery products for the chemical
industry
Aromatic compounds: benzene, toluene, xylenes (BTX)
Olefines
Acids
Alcohols
Solvents
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Lubricants
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The most important function of lubricants is the
reduction of friction and wear.
Mineral oil components continue to form the
quantitatively most important foundation of
lubricants. Petrochemical components and
increasingly derivatives of natural, harvestable
raw materials from the oleo-chemical industry
are finding increasing acceptance because of
their environmental compatibility and some
technical advantages
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Tribology (derived from the Greek tribein, or tribos meaning rubbing) is the
science of friction, wear, and lubrication.
The tribological system (commonly referred to as the tribosystem) consists of
four elements: the two contacting partners, the interface between the two and
the medium in the interface and the environment.
In lubricated bearings the lubricant is located in this gap. In plain bearings,
the material pair are the shaft and the bearing shells; in combustion engines
they are the piston rings and the cylinder wall or the camshaft lobes and the
tappets and in metalworking, the tool and the workpiece.
The variables are the type of movement, the forces involved, temperature,
speed, and duration of the stress. Tribometric parameters — such as friction,
wear, and temperature data — can be gathered from the stress area.
Tribological stress is the result of numerous criteria of surface and contact
geometry, surface loading, or lubricant thickness.
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Sliding and rolling
Friction is the mechanical force
which resists movement
(dynamic or kinetic friction) or
hinders movement (static
friction) between sliding or
rolling surfaces. These types of
friction are also called external
friction.
Internal friction results from the
friction between lubricant
molecules; this is described as
viscosity
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‘Wälzreibung’, mixing of rolling and sliding
motions.
a) Rolling in metal forming; v1, initial speed
of the sheet metal; v2, final speed of the
sheet metal; v3, speed of the roller; vr,
speed difference in the roll gap (sliding
part); N, neutral point (non-slip point, pure
rolling)
b) Engagement of gear teeth, 1, 2, 4. high
sliding/rolling ratio; 3. pitch circle (pure
rolling, no slip)
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Hydrostatic lubrication as a form of fluid friction
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Stribeck graph according to H. CZICHOS and K.-H. HABIG [53]
1) Boundary friction (h ® 0 ); 2) Mixed film friction (h»R); 3) Elastohydrodynamic
lubrication (h > R); 4) Hydrodynamic lubrication (h >> R)
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Improvement of hydrodynamic lubrication clearance between two rollers by
Hertzian deformation (elastohydrodynamic contact, EHD contact), pressure
distribution in the Hertzian contact
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The measure of internal friction in a fluid is viscosity. Viscosity and its dimensions
are best explained with a model of parallel layers of fluid which could be viewed
molecularly. If this packet of fluid layers is sheared ( t), the individual fluid layers
are displaced in the direction of the shearing force. The upper layers move more
rapidly than the lower layers because molecular forces act to resist movement
between the layers. These forces create resistance to shearing and this
resistance is given the term dynamic viscosity. The difference in velocity between
two given fluid layers, related to their linear displacement, is referred to as shear
rate S. This velocity gradient is proportional to the shear stress ( t). The
proportionality constant h is called dynamic viscosity and has the unit Pa · s.
The viscosity index VI is for the description of viscosity – temperature behavior.
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Graphical illustration of viscosity index (VI)
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Various lubricant structures (a, b, c) with high sensitivity
against shear stress
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Various V – T characteristics for several oils
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Yield of the various cuts in conventional lube oil refining of a
typical lube crude
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Base oils are the most important components
of lubricants
The target of base oil distillation is the viscosity desired at 40 °C and 100 °C.
The same distillation cut (same boiling point distribution) with different chemical
structures leads to different viscosities. A highly naphthenic cut produces a
higher viscosity than a paraffinic cut. In other words, equiviscous cuts of different
chemical structures have different boiling-point distributions.
Processes in refining for producing base oils: Distillation, Deasphalting,
Traditional Refining Processes, Solvent Dewaxing, Finishing, Hydrogenation and
Hydrocracking, Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation,
Production of White Oils, Lube Hydrocracking, Catalytic Dewaxing, Wax
Isomerization, All-Hydrogen Route.
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Classes of synthetic lubricants
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Additives can be classified into types that
1. influence the physical, e.g., V – T characteristics, demulsibility, low
temperature properties, etc., and chemical properties, e.g., oxidation stability,
of the base fluids
2. affect primarily the metal surfaces modifying their physicochemical
properties, e.g., reduction of friction, increase of EP behavior, wear
protection, corrosion inhibition, etc.
Antioxidants
Friction Modifiers
Viscosity Modifiers
Corrosion Inhibitors
Pour Point Depressants
Detergents and Dispersants
Antifoam Agents
Demulsifiers
Dyes
Antiwear and Extreme Pressure Additives
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Viscosity modifiers, chain structures, and
monomer make-up
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Scheme of lubrication points in an engine
Engine oils have to fulfil a
wide range of functions in
engines. The purely
tribological task consists of
guaranteeing the functional
reliability of all friction
points in all operating
conditions. In addition,
engine oils have to perform
a number of other
functions. This begins with
the sealing the cylinder
and ends with the transport
of sludge, soot, and
abraded particles to the oil
filter.
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Comparison of monogrades and multigrades motor oils
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Performance additives
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Lubricating oil supply, use and disposal in Western Europe
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