Swiftwater
Rescue I
Water rescue emergencies present some of the
greatest challenges and risks to the rescue
professional.
Life threatening situations develop quickly and
require immediate action. However...
Public safety teams that are
untrained and ill equipped to
handle water-related
emergencies, expose themselves
to untold risks.
Firefighters, law enforcement
officers and members of the
search and rescue community
can all become victims during
rescue events.
Rescuer Safety
ultimately depends on
Training and Education
“Common sense” may
lead you astray!
Safe and effective water rescue
operations depend on proper...
 Training
 Equipment
 Preplanning.
Lesson 1
Swiftwater
Orientation
Swiftwater refers to fast
moving water traveling in a
linear direction




River
Canal
Washes
Flood water
Site reference
Downstream
River Center
River
Right
River
Left
Upstream
Four river
references relate to
facing downstream
Site reference
Upstream
River Right
River Center
River Left
Downstream
References
remain the
same even
when the
perspective
is reversed
Swiftwater Hydrology
The study of the hydraulic effects
and dynamics of water flow and the
associated forces of moving water
Basic characteristics of
moving water
 Powerful
 Relentless
 Predictable.
Learn to respect the
forces associated
with moving water.
After
Big Thompson Flood
Colorado, July 31, 1976
Before
Laminar flow
 Layers of moving water which
are slower on the bottom and
along the banks (due to
increased friction)
 Moving water is faster toward
the center, midstream and on
the outside of bends
Laminar flow
Fastest
Fast
Slow
Slowest
Straight Section
Fastest
Fast
Slow
Slowest
Outside Bend
Water
layers slow
near the
bottom
and along
banks due
to friction
Helical flow
 A circular flow of water along
the bank forcing water to
midstream
 Phenomenon caused by friction
between current and debris and
material on the bank
Helical & Laminar flow
Laminar Flow
Helical Flow
Water dynamics
Water is fastest…
at the surface and midstream.
Water slows down…
along banks and bottom.
Water is faster…
at the outside of bends and slower
on the inside of bends.
Water slows down and deepens…
in front of dams and other
obstructions.
Time for float to travel 100 feet
Seconds
Speed
Current
ft. per sec.
M.P.H.
Knots
5
20
13.6
12
10
10
6.8
6
15
6.7
4.56
4
20
5
3.4
3
25
4
2.72
2.4
50
2
1.36
1.2
100
1
0.68
0.6
Velocity: measured in feet per second
Surface
Velocity
Throw a floating
object (e.g. stick) in
the water and record
the time it takes to
travel 100 feet
Force of moving water
Rule of thumb...
Water Velocity x 2 = Water Force x 4
(double the velocity = quadruple the force)
Forces exerted by
moving water...
Current
Velocity
Force
On Legs
Force
Swamped
On Body
Boat
(mph)
(lbf)
(lbf)
(lbf)
3
16.80
33.60
168.00
6
67.20
134.00
672.00
9
151.00
302.00
1512.00
12
269.00
538.00
2688.00
River Rescue, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1980
The force exerted on
an object in water is
proportional to the
surface area that is
exposed to the force.
Double
velocity,
quadruple
the force
Pillow
 Swelling on the surface caused
by an underwater obstruction
 Obstruction is usually just
beneath the surface
Pillow
Rock or
obstruction
Pillow
Pillow
Hole
 Created by water dropping
vertically over an obstruction
 The larger the drop, the more
defined the hole
Hole
Rock or
obstruction
Hole
 Caused by obstructions in current that
extend above the water’s surface
 Water flows around obstacle and
reverses direction to flow upstream
Eddy
Rock or
obstruction
Eddies
Eddies
Standing waves
 Wave stands in
one place as it
crashes into
shallower water
 Normally found
in chutes, bends
in river and
downstream Vs
 Increase in water
speed as it
descends chute
Standing waves
Standing waves
Upstream & Downstream Vs
Upstream V
River left
River right
Downstream V
 Upstream V created
by water hitting an
object and going
around it
 Downstream V
caused by water
flows converging at
point of least
resistance
Curren
t
Downstream V
Upstream V
Moving water always follows the
path of least resistance.
“Look for downstream Vs”
This is generally the safest and
least obstructed path of travel in
laminar flow.
Downstream V
Reading the river...
River left
1
1
2
3
3
6
5
2
1
3
2
3
River right
6
4
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Upstream V
Downstream V
Eddy
Standing waves
Helical flow
Laminar flow
Identify the hydraulics present...
Identify the hydraulics present...
Categories of swiftwater
 Class I
 Class II
 Class III
 Class IV
 Class V
 Class VI
Few obstructions, very small waves
Easy rapids up to 3 feet wide, obvious clear
channels
High irregular waves, narrow channels,
requires scouting
Difficult long rapids, turbulent water requires
scouting, rescue is difficult
Violent long rapids, scouting is mandatory,
extremely dangerous rescue
Almost impossible to navigate,
rescue is almost impossible
What class of water is this?
Summary
Moving water always follows
the path of least resistance.
Look for downstream Vs. This
is generally the safest path to
travel in the laminar flow.
Lesson 2
Hazard
Awareness
Natural and man-made hazards
are an ever present threat to the
victim and rescuer!




Drowning
Entrapment
Trauma
Hypothermia
Swiftwater hazards
 Debris
Top/floating debris
Suspended debris
Bottom debris
 Fixed obstacles
Rocks, bridge abutments
 Strainers
Barb wire, tree limbs,
branches, log jams, fences
 Low head dams
What other hazards are associated
with bridge abutments?
Strainers allow
water but not
solids to pass
through
Fence lines
create deadly
strainers that
often go
unseen…
…or can
become a
formidable
challenge.
Always scout the
river downstream!
Low head dam
Backwash
Boil
Outwash
Escape route
Cross section
of Low Head Dam
What are the challenges?
Other hazards...
 Slippery, unsure footing
 Difficult topography
access, cliff faces, drop-offs
 Environmental conditions
weather, cold water
 Bio-hazards
flood waters, runoff from
agricultural products
 Local hazards?.
Summary
Know your area and preplan!
Lesson 3
Preplanning
& Equipment
Preplanning...
…is the key to safe and
effective water rescue
operations!
Preplanning saves time and lives!
Always consider
the Risk/Benefit
Analysis of every
operation!
Preplanning
Accident Site Evaluation




Low flow
Medium flow
High flow
Flood stage
Map and photograph
potential accident
sites during low
water...
...toprovide insight
on what to expect
during high water.
Preplanning
Accident Site Survey
 Record width, depth, velocity,
river characteristics
 Locate natural and
manmade hazards
 Record access routes, launch
sites, high danger areas
 Determine ability to
control flow
Sources for locating hazards
and accident sites
 Maps
 Recreational users of the river
 Local accident data analysis
 State and local authorities
– Army Corps of Engineers
– U.S. Coast Guard
Preplanning sites





Rivers
Canals
Flood control projects
Washes
Flood areas
Personal Protective Equipment
for Shore-Based rescuers...
 Always wear a PFD (equipped with
whistle & knife) in and near the water
 Wear proper environmental protection
 Have appropriate foot protection
 Leather gloves for rope management
 Helmet (when necessary)
 Multiple throwline bags.
PPE for Swiftwater Rescue
 Thermal protection
 PFD with knife
& whistle
 Helmet
 Swiftwater
rescue board
 Hand & foot
protection
 Fins/mask/snorkel
 Throwline bags
Swiftwater team equipment
 Throwline bags
 Line gun (w/ hearing & eye protection)
 Tag line buoy
 Multi-chambered inflatable boat
 Rope rescue equipment/hardware
 Communication equipment
 Additional PFDs & helmets
 Other specialized equipment.
Always use the SANE approach
to swiftwater rescue!
 S imple approach
 A dequate backup
 N ever take chances
 E liminate the “beat the
water” attitude
Summary
Preplan and train with
the proper equipment.
The SANE approach
ensures the highest
level of safety.
“Swept Away”
Video
Lesson 4
Fundamental
Rescue
Techniques
Self-rescue techniques
 Anyone working near or around
the water is a potential victim
 Rescuers working in swiftwater
environments must all possess
practical experience with basic
survival and self-rescue skills
Self-rescue techniques
Swimming in current
(defensive maneuvers)
Body positioning...
On your back
Face up
Horizontal posture
Feet downstream
Ferry angles
Swiftwater maneuvering
River left ferry angle
Swiftwater maneuvering
River right ferry angle
Self-rescue techniques
Avoiding entrapment
(aggressive maneuvers)
Body positioning...
Head first, swim/up and over
strainers/hazards
Dangers of foot entrapment in
strong current
Victim rescue
 Scene assessment
Safety first
Evaluate Risk/Benefit
 Victim contact
make attempt to talk with victim
 Always choose rescue methods that
provide the highest degree of
effectiveness while minimizing
the risk to the rescuer.
As a rescuer...
 Never tie yourself (or a victim) to a
rope when working in moving water
 Never tie a line across the river,
perpendicular to the flow, in hopes
of catching a victim
 Never enter swiftwater wearing
firefighter turnout or bunker gear
 Remember, specialized ice
rescue suits are not designed
for swiftwater
Rescue Methods
in order of preference...
 Reach
 Throw
 Row
 Go
“Reach” Method
 Simple technique used when the victim is
close to shore
 Makes use of any object that can be
extended to the victim for them to hold
 Victim must be able to assist in rescue by
holding on to object extended to them
 Maintains high degree of safety for
rescuer
Reach...
Tag line
buoy
“Throw” Method
 Throw method is used when distance to
victim exceeds ability to use the reach
method
 Method limited by distance and throwing
accuracy of the rescuer
 Victim must be able to assist in rescue
by holding on to object thrown to them
 Still maintains high degree of
safety for rescuer
Water rescue throwline bags
Water rescue throwline bags
There is a right way...
…and a wrong way.
Water rescue throwline bags
 Throwline bags are a highly
effective tool in swiftwater rescue
 Easy tool to master but requires
some practice
 Dynamics of throw bag use:
stay on shore
stay on the move
coach victim
 Terrain considerations/victim
access
Throwline
bags
“Row” Method
 This method enables rescuers to
close the gap between victim and the
shore
 Incorporates use of watercraft and
allowing rescuers a safe approach
to victim
 A reach, throw or go rescue can
now be attempted
“Go” Method
 Most dangerous method of victim rescue
 Requires approach and direct contact
with victim in water
 Last resort when reach and throw
methods will not work or the victim is
unable to help themselves
 Places rescuer in greatest danger
 Decision to “go” requires an accurate
assessment of the victim and potential
dangers of the situation
The “Go” method is
potentially dangerous!
 Swimming while trying to control a victim
is difficult even over short distances
 Know your own capabilities
 Have back-up rescuer ready to assist.
 Be prepared with proper equipment
PFD and thermal protection
Helmet
Fins
Swiftwater rescue board
Shallow water crossing
 Single person
 Multi-person line
 Multi-person wedge
Multi-person line
Multi-person wedge
Summary
Lesson 5
Technical Rescue
Systems
Swiftwater maneuvering
River left ferry angle
River right ferry angle
Technical rescue systems




Two-line tether
Four-line tether
High line system
Two-boat tether
Technical rescue systems
Two-line
tether
Two-line
tether
Technical rescue systems
Four-line
tether
Technical rescue systems
Proper tag line management
Four-line
tether
Technical rescue systems
High line
system
Factors for tensioning a high line
 7/16” (11.1 mm) kernmantle rope
 ½” (12.7 mm) rope
 5/8” (16 mm) rope
Factor of 12
Factor of 18
Factor of 24
Factor
Mechanical
Advantage
=
People
Tensioning examples
 Using ½” (12.7 mm) rope …



With a 2:1, 9 people should be used
18/2 = 9
With a 3:1, 6 people should be used
18/3 = 6
With a 6:1, 3 people should be used
18/6 = 3
Technical rescue systems
High line
system
Technical rescue systems
Two-boat
tether
Two-boat tether
Two-boat
tether with
throw
Four-line
system with
reach
Rescue hand signals
...used where verbal communication
is not effective
 Team leader
 Select good vantage point
 Use whistle
Rescue hand signals
Help-Emergency
Also, give 3 long blasts on a
whistle and wave a helmet
or paddle over your head
Rescue hand signals
Direction
Point and hold
indicating proper
direction
Rescue hand signals
Stop!
Also, blow one long
blast on whistle
Rescue hand signals
“OK” Signal
Touch top of head
with a controlled and
deliberate motion
Rescue hand signals
Lengthen line
(slack)
Arms moving out
from center
Rescue hand signals
Shorten line
(tension)
Fists moving up and
down from elbow
Rescue hand signals
Near shore
Arms moving
backward and hold,
indicating direction
Rescue hand signals
Far shore
Arms moving
forward and hold,
indicating direction
#2
#1
Take the
quiz...
#4
#3
Summary
Lesson 6
General
Patient Care
Medical considerations
 Hypothermia
 Near drowning
 Trauma
C-spine care
Cuts and lacerations
Broken bones
 Proper patient handling &
transportation
Field management






Maintain local standard of care
Proper airway management/ ABC’s
Prevent further heat loss
Proper immobilization
Gentle handling
Proper packaging and transport.
A special note on hypothermia:
 Water conducts heat from the body 25
times faster than air of same
temperature
 Hypothermia can occur in water
below 910
 Body core temperature quickly loses
heat in cold water and hypothermia
can have a rapid onset
Don’t let your approach
spell failure...
F ailure to understand moving water
A dditional medical considerations
I nadequate training in rescue techniques
L ack of teamwork
U nderestimating the logistics
R ecovery and rescue
E quipment not mastered
Course Summary