LABOR MARKET CONTRACTS AND WORK INCENTIVES 1 Hwei-Lin Chuang, Ph.D. 2014/05/21 受僱員工薪資調查統計之行業別平均 年份 經常性薪資(元) 非經常性薪資(元) 經常/平均薪資比 1985 13406.36 1677.82 0.889 1990 20662.52 4858.61 0.810 1995 29100.13 7450.49 0.796 2000 34265.12 8508.50 0.801 2005 35587.02 8695.14 0.804 2011 36623.46 9263.48 0.798 2012 37151.50 8455.92 0.815 2013 37526.58 8156.17 0.822 2 1. THE ECONOMICS OF FRINGE BENEFITS 1) Employee Preferences: a) Two categories of benefits: Payment in kind: compensation in the form of some commodity, e.g., insurance, paid vacation. Other things equal, people would rather receive $X in cash than a commodity that costs $X. However, ‘other things” are not equal. In kind payments offer employees a sizable tax advantage because for the most part, they are not taxable under current income tax regulations. 3 b) Deferred compensation: compensation that is earned now but will be paid in the form of money later on. E.g., pension benefits Deferred compensation schemes enjoy a tax advantage over current cash payments. Because of lower income and special tax advantages given the elderly, the tax rates actually paid are relatively low. Note: With both kinds of benefits there is a loss of discretion in spending one’s total compensation, which tends to render fringes inferior to cash payments in generating utility. On the other hand, the special tax advantage of benefits as compared with cash payments tend to increase the demand 4 for fringe. PENSION PLANS CLASSIFIED BY BENEFIT DETERMINATIONS Defined Ex. 勞退舊制 Defined Contribution Plans 確定提撥制 Ex. 勞退新制、美國 401(k) plans Hybrid Benefit Plans 確定給付制 Plans Ex. 現金餘額養老金計劃(cash balance pension) 5 DB VERSUS DC PLANS 確定給付制 ( DB ) 係指雇主透過精算方式預估所需之退休金給 付成本,再決定提撥期 間提撥率之制度。此一制度之優點為具有所得重分配的功能,可減少老 年生活的貧富差距,並賦予勞動者撫養退休人口的責任,且給付額度按 退休前之薪資而定,受通貨膨脹影響較小。惟其缺點在於目前人口老化 問題嚴重,撫養比例逐漸提高,勞動者的負擔將會愈來愈沈重;另退休 給付會受到工作年資、 薪資成長、通貨膨脹、員工異動率等影響,故難 以預知退休給付金額。另勞工如更換雇主,或是雇主不繼續雇用勞工, 則其年資中斷,無法領到退休金,對員工而言 相當不利。 確定提撥制( DC ) 係指雇主及員工按月提撥一定比例之薪資, 存入勞工個人帳戶中, 等到員工退休時再提領個人帳戶中之基金收益。此制度之優點為員工離 職時可攜帶退休金,不必擔心因公司關廠或離職而領不到退休金,且員 工可自行監督雇主有無按期提存退休準備金,另雇主定期按照個人提存 比率提存,制度上較為公平。惟其缺點在於退休準備金是逐期提撥,易 6 受通貨膨脹影響,員工 所領之退休金無法因應老年退休生活所需。 HYBRID PLANS 混合制 ( Hybrid Plans ) 通常是確定給付制 ( DB )但同時擁有確定提撥制( DC ) 特性之制度。以現金餘額養老年金計畫( Cash Balance Pension Plan)為例,此制度於退休時給付一筆特定金額(以一特定計 算公式依據個人之貢獻與薪資水平等作計算基準,類似DB制 度),然而同時亦提供一個虛擬個人帳戶,去累積個人退休基 金( 類似DC制度 )。 也就是說,如果你離開目前的雇主,你的個人虛擬帳戶可 以設算一筆固定金額的退休金,而這筆金額,你可以選擇轉入 你自己的個人退休帳戶( IRA),或是新雇主的退休計畫中。 相關資訊可參考下列網址: http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/FAQs/faq_consumer_cashbalanceplans.html 7 勞退舊制 VERSUS勞退新制 退休金制度改制原因為舊制設計不良 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 請領條件嚴苛(企業平均壽命低於要求退休年資) 年資累計不利轉業 雇主退休金成本不易估計 雇主未提撥之罰則輕 中高年齡勞工就業不易 8 • 根據2009年三月底通過 之修正條文: 在同一單位工作十年以 上,年滿六十歲者亦可 自請退休。 9 10 REFERENCE 勞動基準法 勞工退休金條例 行政院勞工委員會勞工保險局 http://www.bli.gov.tw/ 行政院勞工委員會勞工退休基金監理會 http://www.lpsc.gov.tw/ 11 勞退業務概況 勞退新制(截至101年2月底) 1.提繳單位數:43萬5,728個 2.提繳生效中人數: 546萬6,612人 3.自願提繳人數:34萬6,032人 4.累計已收退休金:7,621億6,034萬餘元 (截至101年1月31日) 5.退休金核發件數:16萬3,639件 6.退休金核發金額:103億150萬餘元 (截至101年4月5日) 勞退舊制(截至95年7月底) 1.提繳單位數11.2萬家(較93年大幅成長104.17%) 2.累計餘額4,019億 3.累計退休人數39萬人 4.累計撥發金額3982.7億 5.平均每人退休給付金額101.7萬元 12 勞退業務概況之新舊制比較 (101年2月份資料) 勞工退休準備金(舊制) 勞工退休金(新制) 勞退準備金現有提 存戶數 124,342 提繳事業單位家數 勞退準備金有餘額 戶數 117,749 提繳人數 435,728 5,466,612 提存廠商開戶時員 工人數 3,404,241 平均提繳工資(元) 當期提存金額 4,378,959 應計提繳金額 12,233,134 當期撥發金額 3,090,824 實計提繳金額 11,350,949 累計提存金額(含孳 息、收益) 33,820 1,187,163,306 實際核發退休金件數 2,653 累計撥發金額 627,176,745 實際核發退休金金額 299,418 基金餘額(年月底數) 566,488,795 基金餘額(年月底數) 759,808,756 13 開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 以開放體系台灣總體經濟計量模型分析勞工退休不同 提撥制度對台灣總體經濟之效果。 台灣若自2002年開始實施勞工退休金個人帳戶制,在 四種不同設定下: 提撥率:甲(前二年每年提撥3%,第3年起6%) 乙(自第一年起即以6%提撥) 基金餘額利用效率:高、低 且勞工退休金之提撥由勞、資雙協議,對台灣總體 經濟之衝擊,長、短期效果不盡相同。 14 開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 四種不同設定之勞工退休金個人帳戶制對後期實質產 出多有不等之正面效果,其中又以乙8案之正面效果 最大。 由於勞工退休金部份由資方負擔,任何程度的經營成 本增加都不利民間投資,因此,在支出面及生產面都 受到負面衝擊在勞工個人帳戶制實施初期,勞工退休 領回之年金不多,對民間消費增加的效果遠不及廠商 投資之縮減效果。因此,短期退休基金對總體經濟正 面效果無法抵銷民間消費及廠商投資之縮減效果,整 體國內生產呈現負面效果,長期則反之。 15 勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型 將管理勞退基金之機構視為準政府。 勞、資雙方退休金之提撥視為民間對政府的移轉 支出。 勞方退休後收到之退休年金及相關津貼視為政府 對民間的移轉支出。 勞退基金注入貨幣市場時視為貨幣供給的增加。 →在總體經濟計量模型中,政府與民間的相互移轉 支出(收入)將影響家庭可支配所得、廠商投資 意願、勞動供給及政府財政。 16 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型 17 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型 廠商因負擔勞退金之提撥,使投資意願降低,不利技術成長。 在勞退金制度實施後,退休之勞工將得到退休年金給付,增加 所得購買力,經由國內生產毛額之供需兩面,影響總體經濟各 部門及各變數。 因此,我們可同時看到短期與長期不同的動態效果: 短期動態效果:廠商因負擔勞退金之提撥,致投資意願降低,不利技術提升; 政府財政因勞退金之注入遠大於勞退金之給付,以致財政短期內獲得改善;因 此,勞退金實施初期,由於勞退基金規模相對小,對總體經濟部門的衝擊也不 會太激烈。 長期的動態效果:勞退金制度實施相當一段時間後,政府財政因勞退金之注入 量低於勞退金之支出量,使政府財政壓力增大,舉債提高,市場利率升高,不 利民間投資。惟退休後之勞工得到退休年金給付變大,有助民間所得購買力增 加,國內生產毛額受到正面影響,相抵之下,最後的結果端視市場利率升高及 民間所得購買力增加之淨效果。 18 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 勞 退 金 提 撥 與 總 體 經 濟 在無基金效果顯現時,即勞退基金不 增加該年貨幣供給,整體經濟將呈現 國內利率升、生產降、就業降及工資 降等負面衝擊。 在有基金效果顯現時,即勞退基金可 增加該年貨幣供給,整體經濟將呈現 國內利率降、生產增、就業增及工資 升的多項正面效益。 註 : 實虛 線線 為為 未有 實實 施施 勞勞 退退 金金 制制 度度 19 退休金之提撥分擔不同 對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較 經濟成長率 失業率 國民儲蓄率 民間利率 新台幣匯率 20 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 退休金之提撥分擔不同 對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較 經濟成長率 失業率 國民儲蓄率 民間利率 新台幣匯率 21 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 退休金之提撥分擔不同 對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較 經濟成長率 失業率 國民儲蓄率 民間利率 新台幣匯率 22 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 退休金之提撥分擔不同 對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較 經濟成長率 民間利率 失業率 國民儲蓄率 新台幣匯率 23 資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析 (何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004) 2) Employer Preferences Suppose employers are totally indifferent about whether to spend $X on wages or $X on fringes, then the composition of total compensation is a matter of indifference to the employers, only the level of compensation is of concern. Suppose a firm must pay its workers $X per years to remain competitive in both the labor and the product markets. → The various compensation packages a firm is willing to offer fall along the zero-profit isoprofit curve drawn between wages and fringes. 24 Wage Rate Employer’s Zero-Profit Isoprofit Curve Nominal Employer Cost of Fringe Benefits The slope of the isoprofit curve is negative reflecting the fact that the firm can increase fringes only if it reduces wages. In this case, the isoprofit curve has a slope of –1, reflecting employer’s indifference about the composition of compensation. Note: By increasing compensation in the form of fringes rather than wages, employers can often avoid taxes and required insurance payments that are levied as a fraction of payroll. This will make it more costly for an employer to increase compensation by 25 increasing salaries than by increasing benefits. →A dollar spent on fringes could cost employers more or less than a dollar nominally spent on wages or salaries. When fringes enhance productivity more than a similar expenditure on wages would, the isoprofit curve will flatten. When fringes increase other costs or reduce productivity, the isoprofit curve will be steeper. Wage Rate X A B X Nominal Employer Cost of Fringe Benefits 26 3) The Joint Determination of Wages and Fringes Wage Rate X Worker Y WY XX traces out the actual offers made by all firms in this labor market. Worker Z WZ FY FZ Nominal Employer Cost X of Fringe Benefits Those employees who attach relatively great importance to the availability of current spendable cash will choose to accept offers in which total compensation comes largely in the form of wages. (such as worker Y) employees who may be less worried about current cash income but more interested in the tax advantages of 27 fringe benefits will accept offers in which fringe benefits form a higher proportion of total compensation. (worker Z) Note: Because firms that pay high wages usually also offer very good fringe benefits, it often appears to the casual observer that wages and fringes are positively related. Casual observation in this case is misleading because it does not allow for the influences of other factors, such as the demands of the job and the quality of workers involved. 28 2. THE COMPENSATION OF EXECUTIVES There has been a lot of interest in recent years in the salaries of high-level executives, such as chief executive officers, or CEOs. American CEOs have much higher salaries than their counterparts in Germany and Japan. For example, the average salary of the top 20 executives in the United States is $4.8 million, as compared to $1.8 million in Germany, and $530,000 in Japan. 29 1999年 董 事 長 薪 資 統 計 資 料 排名 產業別(樣本數 ) 1 ind8(2) 2 ind314(37) 3 ind3(119) 4 ind317(41) 5 ind6(78) 環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、 出版業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。 資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資 料終端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、 電腦零組件製造業。 電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、 精密機械製造、及其他工業製品。 電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件 製造、被動元件製造業。 運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業 及不動產業。 建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問 服務業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商 服務業。 化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製 品、橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製 造、金屬基本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設 備製造配修業。 平均值 標準差 最大值 最小值 7941000 4823882 11352000 4530000 6987516 6146558 35561000 70000 5819706 5727460 39674000 0 5439781 6350059 39674000 0 5207227 5446836 32186000 125000 4940750 2174278 7335000 2981000 4203594 3121513 14677000 0 6 ind7(4) 7 ind2(105) 8 ind5(16) 批發、零售、及餐飲業。 4174288 2695108 11445000 24000 9 ind1(66) 食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家 具及裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。 3842774 2836575 13941000 76000 10 ind4(21) 水電燃氣業、營造業。 3765139 2151109 9736319 738000 11 ind316(14) 有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其 他通信器材製造業。 2721929 2173319 7556000 6000 30 資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士) 2000董 事 長 薪 資 統 計 表 排名 產業別(樣本數) 1 ind8(2) 環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版 業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。 資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終 端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組 件製造業。 電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製 造、被動元件製造業。 電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密 機械製造、及其他工業製品。 建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務 業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。 平均值 標準差 最大值 最小值 8545500 6158192.9 12900000 4191000 8291264 12372835 80806000 0 7225657 11326955 70916000 0 6786179 9735585 80806000 0 5608600 4117007.3 11231000 522000 2 ind314(52) 3 ind317(58) 4 ind3(176) 5 ind7(5) 6 ind6(81) 運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不 動產業。 5110894 4970794.5 30953000 180000 7 ind5(14) 批發、零售、及餐飲業。 4984263 2548457.2 11445000 1360000 8 ind2(116) 化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、 橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基 本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。 4503687 3417734.7 19054000 0 9 ind316(19) 有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通 信器材製造業。 4380743 2582013.5 9791000 18000 10 ind1(72) 食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家 具及裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。 3822326 3223166.4 19549000 0 11 ind4(23) 水電燃氣業、營造業。 3465417 2059382.9 7423000 0 31 資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士) 1999年 總 經 理 薪 資 統 計 資 料 排名 產業別(樣本數) 1 ind8(1) 2 ind314(26) 3 ind317(35) 4 ind3(99) 5 ind6(67) 6 ind1(46) 平均值 標準差 最大值 最小值 9703000 _ 9703000 9703000 6517337 7424517 40016000 120000 5914440 5367500 30164000 1580000 5306580 5249470 40016000 28000 4564938 2889486 15560000 386058 4425384 3575602 22793000 30000 4404152 2900219 16655000 72000 3487333 887361.4 4406000 2635000 有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通 信器材製造業。 3466600 2296103 8032000 28000 環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版 業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。 資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終 端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組 件製造業。 電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製 造、被動元件製造業。 電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密 機械製造、及其他工業製品。 運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不 動產業。 食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家具及 裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。 化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、 橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基 本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。 建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務 業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。 7 ind2(81) 8 ind7(3) 9 ind316(12) 10 ind5(10) 批發、零售、及餐飲業。 3186174 1686555 6192000 1348000 11 ind4(17) 水電燃氣業、營造業。 2902130 1697768 6377776 300000 32 資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士) 1999年 總 經 理 薪 資 統 計 資 料 排名 產業別(樣本數) 1 ind8(1) 2 ind314(26) 3 ind317(35) 4 ind3(99) 5 ind6(67) 6 ind1(46) 平均值 標準差 最大值 最小值 9703000 _ 9703000 9703000 6517337 7424517 40016000 120000 5914440 5367500 30164000 1580000 5306580 5249470 40016000 28000 4564938 2889486 15560000 386058 4425384 3575602 22793000 30000 4404152 2900219 16655000 72000 3487333 887361.4 4406000 2635000 有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通 信器材製造業。 3466600 2296103 8032000 28000 環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版 業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。 資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終 端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組 件製造業。 電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製 造、被動元件製造業。 電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密 機械製造、及其他工業製品。 運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不 動產業。 食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家具及 裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。 化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、 橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基 本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。 建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務 業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。 7 ind2(81) 8 ind7(3) 9 ind316(12) 10 ind5(10) 批發、零售、及餐飲業。 3186174 1686555 6192000 1348000 11 ind4(17) 水電燃氣業、營造業。 2902130 1697768 6377776 300000 33 資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士) 1) The Principal-Agent Problem The analysis of CEO compensation also raises a number of important questions in economics. In particular, what should be the compensation package of a person who runs the firm, yet does not own it? The CEO is an agent for the owners of the firm (the owners are also called the principals). The owners of the firm, who are typically the shareholders, want the CEO to conduct the firm’s business in a way that increases their wealth. 34 The inevitable conflict between the interests of the principals and the interests of the agent is known as the principal-agent problem. The structure of CEO compensation can be interpreted in terms of a tournament where the vice-presidents compete for promotion, and where the winner runs the company. This interpretation explains why the “prize spread” is larger when executives are promoted to CEO than when executives are promoted from junior to middlelevel management. 35 TOURNAMENTS Firms award promotions on the basis of the relative ranking of the workers. A tournament might be used when it is cheaper to observe the relative ranking of a worker than the absolute level of the worker’s productivity. Workers allocate more effort to the firm when the prize spread between winners and losers in the tournament is very large. A large prize spread, however, also creates incentives for workers to sabotage the efforts of other players or to quit along the way. 36 THE ALLOCATION OF EFFORT IN A TOURNAMENT Dollars MC Y X Flow MRHIGH MRLOW Fhigh Effort The marginal cost curve gives the “pain” of allocating an additional unit of effort to a tournament. If the prize spread between first and second place is large, the marginal revenue to an additional unit of effort is very high (MRHIGH) and the worker allocates more effort to the tournament. 37 2) The Link between CEO Compensation and Firm Performance There is a positive correlation between the compensation of CEOs and the performance of the firm, but the correlation is weak. It is unlikely, therefore, that CEOs have the “right” incentives to take only those actions that benefit the owners of the firm. 38 3. INCENTIVE PAY PAY SYSTEMS: PIECE RATES Piece rates are used by firms when it is cheap to monitor the output of workers. Piece-rate compensation systems attract the most able workers and elicit high levels of effort from these workers. Workers in these firms, however, may stress quantity over quality, and may dislike the possibility that incomes fluctuate significantly over time. 39 THE ALLOCATION OF EFFORT BY PIECERATE WORKERS Dollars MC r q* qABLE The piece rate is r dollars, so the marginal revenue of an additional unit of output equals r. The worker gets disutility from MCABLE producing output, as indicated by the upward-sloping marginal cost of effort curve. The level of effort MR chosen by a piece-rate worker equates marginal revenue to marginal cost, or q* units. If it is easier for more-able workers to allocate effort to their jobs, they Output face lower marginal cost curves and produce more output. 40 PAY SYSTEMS: TIME RATES Time rates are used by firms when it is costly or impossible to monitor the output of workers. 41 EFFORT AND ABILITY OF WORKERS IN PIECERATE AND TIME-RATE JOBS Utility Piece-Rate Workers Time-Rate Workers r Worker A x* Worker B Ability All workers, regardless of their abilities, allocate the same minimal level of effort to time-rate jobs. Because more-able workers find it easier to allocate effort, they will allocate more effort to piece-rate jobs and will have higher earnings and utility. Workers with more than x* units of ability sort themselves into piece-rate jobs, and less-able workers choose time-rate jobs. 42 BONUSES, PROFIT-SHARING, AND TEAM INCENTIVES Unlike piece-rate systems, profit-sharing programs suffer from the incentive problems that afflict all team efforts, particularly the free-riding problem. Evidence suggests that profit-sharing plans increase productivity. 43 WORK INCENTIVES AND DELAYED COMPENSATION Upward-sloping age-earnings profiles might arise because delaying the compensation of workers until later in the life cycle encourages them to allocate more effort to the firm. A delayed-compensation contract implies that at some point in the future the contract must be terminated, thus explaining the existence of mandatory retirement in the labor market. 44 INDIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CONSTANT WAGE AND UPWARD-SLOPING AGE-EARNING PROFILE Earnings C B D VMP A 0 t* N Years on the Job If the firm could monitor a worker easily, she would get paid her constant value of marginal product (VMP) over the life cycle. If it is difficult to monitor output, workers will shirk. An upwardsloping age-earnings profile (such as AC) discourages workers from shirking. Workers get paid less than their value of marginal product during the first few years on the job, and this “loan” is 45 repaid in later years. EFFICIENCY WAGES Some firms might want to pay wages above the competitive wage in order to motivate the work force to be more productive. The efficiency wage is set such that the elasticity of output with respect to the wage is equal to 1. That is, efficiency wage is set where the marginal cost of increasing the wage exactly equals the marginal gain in the productivity of the firm’s workers. Efficiency wages create a pool of workers who are involuntarily unemployed. 46 THE DETERMINATION OF THE EFFICIENCY WAGE Output Z X qe q Total Product Curve Y 0 w we Wage The total product curve indicates how the firm’s output depends on the wage the firm pays its workers. The efficiency wage is given by point X, where the marginal product of the wage (the slope of the total product curve) equals the average product of the wage (the slope of the line from the origin). The efficiency wage maximizes the firm’s profits.47 WHY IS THERE A LINK BETWEEN WAGES AND PRODUCTIVITY? A high wage makes it costly for workers to shirk (i.e., they lose the wage if caught). People who are well-paid might work harder even if there is no threat of dismissal. Efficiency wages reduce the quit rate and increase output and profits. A firm that pays efficiency wages attracts a more qualified pool of workers, increasing the productivity and profits of the firm. 48