THE CHANGING NATURE OF
WARFARE
1845 - 1991
The Changing Nature of Warfare 1845 – 1991
(A2 Unit 4)
• This forms 40% of the A2 course – 20% of whole A Level.
• Content
• The content of the course will focus on a series of case studies
of war in the 19th and 20th Centuries which show how modern
warfare has developed over approx. 150 years.
THE ‘NATURE’ OF WARFARE MEANS - • The one constant = all wars involve men (sometimes
women e.g. USSR WWII) fighting each other.
• What changes =
- short, prolonged wars.
- Intensity, ferocity
- Organisation/structure of fighting forces.
- The way the war is fought – weapons, tactics,
strategy, conventional V unconventional, war of
movement V war of position
- The experiences of combatants (and civilians)
- The rules of the game (codes written or unwritten
which limit violence)
- Outcomes – what determines who wins and who loses?
WAR
SIGNIFICANT EVENT
SIGNIFICANT
INDIVIDUAL
Crimean War 1854- Battle of Balaclava
Lord Raglan
56
American Civil War Battles of Chancellorsville, Robert E Lee
1861-65
Gettysburg and Hampton
Roads
Franco-Prussian War Battles of Gravelotte &
von Moltke
1870-71
Sedan
Zulu War
1879
First World War
1914-18
Second World War
1939-45
Vietnam War
1956-75
st
1 Gulf War
1991
SIGNIFICANT
FEATURE/
TECHNOLOGY
Ironclads
Gatling gun
USS Monitor
Battles of Isandlwana,
Rorke’s Drift and Ulundi
Battles of Jutland,
Somme, Vimy Ridge, 3rd
(Messines Ridge &
Passchendaele)
Lord Chelmsford
Invasion of France
Battle of Stalingrad
Battle of Normandy
General Manstein
Marshall Zhukov
Field Marshall
Montgomery
Eisenhower
Tet Offensive
General Westmoreland
Krupp Artillery
Needle Gun &
Chassepot rifle
Martini Henry
repeating rifle
Machine guns
Tanks
Aircraft (bombers)
Dreadnoughts
Howitzers
Tanks
Aircraft
Aircraft Carriers
Ballistic Missiles (V2
Rockets)
Atomic Bomb
Helicopters
General Schwarzkopf
Guided missiles
Admiral Jellicoe
Field Marshall Haig
FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE THE NATURE OF WARFARE
Factor
Why is it important?
What impact does it have (positive and
negative)?
Examples of where it has been important
Resources/
Economy
Determines:
Size of army, how long it can fight, quality of
weapons
Decisive in long wars
Economic warfare crucial e.g. deny your
enemies supplies
If there is an imbalance it can be crucial
BUT not as important in short wars and will
to win can have a massive impact
WW2
American Civil War
Vietnam (in a negative aspect)
Technology
It gives an army a chance of having a large
advantage
Positive – if you develop technology quicker
you can win quickly
Negative – other side can catch up and this
leads to stalemate
Tank e.g. Somme, Atomic bomb WW2
Leadership
Determine how an army fights. Pyramid structure
used as organisation
Effects experience of war and nature of
war of ordinary soldiers – need imagination
and skill to win.
Hitler at beginning of WW2
Doctrine, strategy, tactics
Doctrine - with an idea to follow
Strategy – plan for war
tactics – methods of fighting
Ideology/culture – aggressive attitude towards war
has a massive impact
D – negative e.g. defence of France in WW2
(abandons attack)
S – Schlieffen Plan
T – development of Blitzkrieg in WW2 –
speed of victory
War of movement
D/S – victory? March 1918 – smashed the
French front lines.
Composition of army
Professionals – understand job, experienced
Volunteers – patriots, inexperienced, lack
understanding/ training
Volunteers can have motivation, willing to
die for their country, patriotic
Professionals – experienced but lack
motivation
Somme 1916
Ypres 1917 – negative as conscription led to
huge losses
Logistics
Determines supplies and quality of fighting materials
Need the right supply chain in order to be
successful
Defeat – Prussian defeat of France in 1871
Will to win
Determines duration of war, can overcome wealth
and technology
It can help overcome differences in other
areas (wealth technology) but may not be
strong enough to win
Vietnam war, WW2 – Blitzkrieg by
Germany, D-Day Allies
Public support/backing
Boost morale of troops fighting and they’ll want to
continue
Determination to fight
WW2 positive press
RESOURCES /ECONOMIC MUSCLE
This is fundamental in determining the
nature of war – the wealth and material
resources of the combatants.
It influences:
• the size of the armies
• how long they can keep fighting
• the kinds of weapons and equipment
they can produce (technology).
IMPACT ON OUTCOMES (who wins, who
loses)
• It can be decisive – especially in protracted (long)
wars
• This is why ‘economic warfare’ is so important –
denying the enemy resources while maximising yours
e.g. German U boat campaign WWII, Sherman’s
campaign in the South during the American Civil War
• An imbalance of economic resources can be critical to
ones sides victory e.g. North V South American Civil
War, e.g. it was all important in deciding the outcome
of WWII –the economic resources of the Allies
(USA, GB, USSR) was vital in the defeat of Nazi
Germany
BUT It might not be decisive –
• In short, sharp wars economic power might
not be a factor e.g. the economic power of GB
and France combined was greater then
Germany in 1940 – but Germany won in 10
weeks.
• Economic factors might be countered by
others eg superior strategy and tactics
(Germany 1940), will to win (Vietcong V the
economic might of USA in the Vietnam War)
TECHNOLOGY
•
•
•
The level of technology plays a vital part in determining the nature of a war .
It in turn depends on the level of economic development of the combatants.
It determines - - -
-
The kinds of weapons which can be used (military technology) – eg the industrial
revolution (economic) enabled the production of new weapons like heavy artillery,
tanks, planes.
-
The way war is waged – by advances in non military technology eg railways, roads,
engines, telegraph and communications, intelligence breakthroughs. All can have a
dramatic effect on the way war is fought eg the invention of railways enabled
massive armies to be moved in WWI, the development of the telegraph enabled
commanders to exert more control over armies.
-
The nature of the fighting – eg the development of machines guns and rapid fire
artillery in WWI determined that it would be a ‘war of position’ – static trench
warfare – because the weapons and non military technology favoured the
defence – but then the development of the tank and air power in the 1930’s
determined that WWII would be a ‘war of movement’ with rapid advances and
breakthroughs.
EFFECT ON OUTCOMES
• Can be decisive in deciding who wins and who loses –
especially if one side has a clear technological
advantage eg USA development of atomic weapons
was decisive in the defeat of Japan 1945, British
technological dominance was decisive in most colonial
wars of the 19th. Century.
• But – it need not be the critical factor – others may
be more important in some situations eg in 1940
Germany did not have a technological advantage over
France and Britain – their 10 week victory was due to
superior leadership, tactics and morale. eg in the
Vietnam War the USA had a massive technological
advantage over the Vietnamese – yet lost due to the
effects of morale, will to win, public opinion.
• In the end it is how the technology is used and
applied which is decisive – as the Germans did in
1940.Superior weapons might not help if there is poor
leadership and no ‘will to win’.
• Also – war itself leads to rapid advances in technology
– the pressures of war force combatants to finds new
ways of winning eg the development of the tank and
fighter planes in WWI.
• In such cases the development of technology tends to
even itself out - one side gets a slight lead then the
other one catches up (arms race).
• This can lead to stalemate – or victory if one side is
able to apply the technology better and also take the
lead in other areas such as leadership or morale.
LEADERSHIP
• Can have a massive
impact on the nature
of war –
• In modern times
armies and forces
have had a pyramid
structure – below
are the ordinary
soldiers
Political leadership
Generals / Commanders
Junior officers/ middle ranking leaders
Leadership can be important because –
• The political leaders tend to set the broad
broad political and strategic goals of the
conflict eg Hitler WWII
• The Generals develop and apply strategy and
tactics to achieve the strategic goals at
‘operational’ level.
• The middle ranking commanders operate at
the tactical level and are sometimes at the
‘cutting edge’ of the conflict.
• All of these clearly affect the experience of
war of ordinary soldiers and the nature of the
conflict
EXAMPLES
• It is often argued that the lack of
imagination and skill of the senior
commanders in WWI determined that it
would remain stuck in the stalemate of trench
warfare.
• Up to 1942 the British army had suffered
crushing defeats at the hands of the Germans
(on land) – its morale was rock bottom. The
leadership of Montgomery transformed it –
his tactical skill and charisma meant it never
lost after 1942.
EFFECTS ON OUTCOMES
• Many see leadership as the key factor in
determining victory – economic power and
technology have to be applied and used
correctly – this is the job of leadership eg
the way German generals in 1940 used tanks
and aircraft in new ‘Blitzkrieg’ tactics
determined the outcome.
• Brilliant leadership can counteract an enemies
lead in economic power and technology eg
General Giap - the general who led North
Vietnam to victory against the French and
then the USA.
BUT - • We inevitably tend to put the praise or blame for
victory or defeat on the high profile leaders but the
real outcome might be determined by other less
visible factors like economic wealth and technological
advances.
• The commanders might also be the victims of the
circumstances in which they find themselves eg Haig
is criticised for his tactics in the Battle of the
Somme – but what else could he have done?
• Leadership is more then just the ideas and decisions
of the top commanders eg in the British army in WWI
the senior commanders were often incompetent – but
the middle and lower ones were superb.
Doctrine, Strategy and Tactics
• Doctrine = all armies and commanders enter a war with definite
ideas about what it will be like and how to fight it – this will
affect the nature of the war itself eg at the start of WWII
the French commander (Gamelin) assumed that the war would be
a repeat of WWI with the advantage with the defenders – so he
abandoned attack and concentrated on stern defence. He was
wrong – and this determined that this battle would be short and
catastrophic for France
• Strategy = the overall plan for the war – devised by political and
military leaders. This can have a big impact on the nature of the
war eg German war plans in 1914 (The Schlieffen Plan)
determined that the war would largely be fought in France and
would result in trench warfare.
• Tactics = the actual method of fighting eg the German
development of Blitzkrieg tactics in 1940 determined that unlike
WWI the Second World war would be a war of movement.
EFFECTS ON OUTCOME
• Some would say that this is decisive –
allied to leadership – because it is how
men, weapons and technology are used
which is important – superior strategy
and tactics will bring victory eg superior
German tactics in March 1918 led to
their breakthrough and their Blitzkrieg
tactics in 1940 led to the defeat of
France NOT superior technology or
weapons.
BUT • Even superior tactics and leadership
might not guarantee victory at least in
the long run eg throughout the Second
World War the German army was better
led and tactically superior to the Allies
– yet they lost because they were
overwhelmed by superior Allied wealth,
manpower and technology
COMPOSITION OF ARMIES
• This can have a big impact on the nature of
the conflict.
• Armies can be (a) professional – made up of
volunteers who join for a career and will have
a certain level of expertise (b) part time territorial or militia – who are then drafted in
the event of war and who will have a level of
expertise (c) conscript – forcibly drafted
before or during the conflict with no level of
expertise (d) volunteers – during the conflict
for patriotic reasons – no level of expertise
but have enthusiasm
EXAMPLES
• The British army of WWI was a mixture –
began in 1914 as a small professional army –
joined by territorials – but then swelled to
millions be volunteers and later conscripts.
• The exact mixture of armies can have an
impact on how the fighting is conducted eg
one reason for the much criticised frontal
attacks on trenches at the Somme 1916 and
Ypres in 1917 is that the inexperienced and
untrained volunteers who made up the bulk of
the British army could not be expected to do
anything else.
EFFECTS ON OUTCOME
• Generally speaking – professional armies
are considered superior and more likely
to bring victory eg in the Falkland war
1982 the British army was heavily
outnumbered by the Argentinians - but
the Brits were skilled full time
professionals and the Argentineans
were raw conscripts – no contest.
BUT • Professionals do not always bring victory
because –
• They can often be too few in number eg the
BEF of 1914 was tiny compared to the massive
German army - mostly conscripts. It was
wiped out.
• Enthusiasm can sometimes be more important
than professionalism eg the best units in the
British army in WWI were often the
volunteers.
ORGANISATION / LOGISTICS
• The organisation and efficiency of armed
forces can a have a big impact on the kind of
war fought and also its outcome.
• Logistics = the art of supplying armies with
weapons, food etc and can be vital to how it
fights.
• If both are inadequate in one army then it is
likely to be defeated – a well organised and
supplied force has a massive advantage eg it
is usually argued that these were the critical
factors in the Prussian defeat of France in
1870-71
MORALE / WILL TO WIN
• Can have a big impact on the way the war is fought
and its duration.
• It is the ‘motivation’ soldiers (even commanders) have
to actually fight (risking their lives) and win. If one
side has it and the other does not the conflict can be
short and one sided eg in 1940 the German army did
have it – the French did not = 10 week German
victory.
• If both sides have it – the war can be prolonged,
bloody and intense eg Germany V Russia 1941-45.
• If neither side has it the war can be prolonged and
indecisive eg the long truces on the Western Front in
WWI
EFFECTS ON OUTCOME
• Some say this is the decisive factor – a
strong will to win and high motivation can
overcome other factors like lack of
technology and wealth eg the Vietnamese V
USA in the Vietnam War, the fanaticism of
Japanese troops in WWII.
• Others say that while motivation and will to
win are important and can make a conflict
more intense they cannot overcome
deficiencies in other areas like wealth and
technology eg both Japan and Germany were
better motivated than Western Allied troops
in WWII – but they still lost.
IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE
• Related to morale and will to win – some societies or
cultures or political ideologies have a more aggressive
attitude to war and conflict and this can have a big
impact on the way the war is fought eg the Nazis race
ideology determined that the war in Russia against
inferior ‘Slavs’ would be more brutal and bloody then
elsewhere eg the Japanese military code of honour in
WWII (to surrender is shaming) determined that
they would fight fanatically and often to the last man.
• Effects on outcome – can give one side an advantage
if its men are more willing to make sacrifices – but
cannot overcome great disparities in wealth and
technology – Japan lost.
PUBLIC BACKING / SUPPORT
• In some modern wars the attitude of the
general public – expressed through opinion
polls, the media etc can have an impact on the
scale and intensity and duration of the
conflict eg the collapse of public backing for
the Vietnam war in the USA in the late 1960s
is often given as one reasons for the US
defeat and withdrawal.
• The need to keep public opinion on board can
also limit a conflict – because of the need to
keep casualties to a minimum eg Afghanistan
today
BUT • This factor only applies in Western
democratic societies with a well
developed public opinion.
• In other societies public opinion can be
ignored or manipulated by propaganda
and state control of the media.
Factor
Resources/
Economy
Technology
Leadership
Doctrine, strategy,
tactics
Composition of
army
Logistics
Will to win
Public
support/backing
Why is it
important?
What impact does
it have (positive
and negative)?
Examples of where
it has been
important
CONCLUSION
• No one factor is absolute in determining the
nature and outcome of a war.
• The nature of war is determined by a
combination of all or some of these factors.
• In any one conflict one or more might be
deemed to be critical eg technology in WWII
– but all must be taken into account when
considering the nature and outcome of an
individual conflcit.