DISKRIMINASI
PASAR TENAGA KERJA
Labor Economics Series
Tokoh Pejuang Wanita
Indonesia
Raden Adjeng Kartini
21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904
2
Pemikiran Raden Adjeng
Kartini
Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki
kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan
kungkungan adat, antara lain :

Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok
rumah.

Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses
pendidikan.

Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria
yang tidak dikenal.
3
Fakta di Indonesia
4
Penduduk yang Bekerja
(Februari 2012)
45,000,000
40,000,000
35,000,000
15,441,120
30,000,000
6,876,405
25,000,000
20,000,000
11,003,698
15,000,000
25,116,020
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
3,983,193
3,473,057
2,518,306
184,125
934,988
9,755,566
3,541,749
5
3,295,852
3,108,946
Pria
Wanita
Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id
22,938,665
20,465
610,650
Penduduk yang Bekerja
(Februari 2012)
Jenis Pekerjaan
Utama
Jumlah
Pria
Wanita
3.473.057
3.983.193
7.456.250
934.988
184.125
1.119.113
Tata Usaha
3.541.749
2.518.306
6.060.055
TU Penjualan
9.755.566 11.003.698
20.759.264
TU Jasa
3.108.946
Tenaga Profesional
Kepemimpinan
3.295.852
6.404.798
TU Pertanian
25.116.020 15.441.120
40.557.140
Produksi
22.938.665
6.876.405
29.815.070
610.65
20.465
631.115
Lainnya
Jumlah
6
JENIS KELAMIN
69.479.641 43.323.164 112.802.805
Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id
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7
Pria
Wanita
0
Pria
Wanita
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
1,600,000
1,200,000
800,000
400,000
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN
SEKTOR
1
Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan
(Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery)
2
Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying)
3
Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries)
4
Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water)
5
WANITA
438.149
234.586
1.541.241
771.415
826.257
583.768
1.176.160
1.338.737
Bangunan (Construction)
734.070
1.073.573
6
Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale
Trade,Restaurant & Hotel)
806.110
621.248
7
Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi
(Transportation,Storage & Communication)
934.761
944.419
8
Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan
(Financing,Insurance,Business Services)
1.422.252
1.461.926
9
Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services)
1.126.559
789.557
827.101
612.131
Rata-rata
8
PRIA
Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan
Jam Kerja (Februari 2012)
40,000,000
35,000,000
8,874,959
30,000,000
10,293,078
25,000,000
24,757,499
20,000,000
17,927,986
15,000,000
7,354,950
4,827,312
6,952,926
10,000,000
8,668,913
5,000,000
0
5,718,802
794,465
1,379,487
0
1,658,218
1,039,073
1-9
2,567,256
1,590,396
10-14
15-24
Pria
9
8,397,485
Wanita
25-34
35-44
45-59
≥ 60
Konsep
Diskriminasi
10
Konsep Diskriminasi
George Borjas :
Differences in EARNINGS and
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
among equally skilled workers
employed in the same job simply
because of the worker’s race,
gender, national origin, sexual
orientation, or other seemingly
irrelevant characteristics.
11
Konsep Diskriminasi
Discrimination means treating people
differently and less favourably because
of characteristics that are not related to
their merit or the requirements of the job.
These include race, colour, sex, religion,
political opinion, national extraction and
social origin.
12
The Discrimination
Coefficient
13
The Discrimination Coefficient
Lauched for the first time
by Gary S. Becker
The Economics of Discrimination (1957)
14
The Discrimination Coefficient
 Basic
Concept : Taste Discrimination
 Assumption
White
Black
 Two types of workers :
workers : wage  wW
workers : wage  wB
15
The Discrimination Coefficient
 If
the employer is prejudiced againts
black, employer gets disutility from
hiring black workers.
 Disutility
: employer will act as if costs
for black worker wB (1 + d), where d is
positive number and is called :
The Discrimination Coefficient
16
The Discrimination Coefficient
 Suppose
that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ;
the employer will then act as if hiring a
black worker costs $ 15
 The
greater the prejudiced, the greater is
the disutility from hiring black workers,
and the greater is the discrimination
coefficient d.
17
The Discrimination Coefficient
 If
these black employers prefer to hire
black workers, they will act as if hiring a
black worker is cheaper than it actually is.
Nepotism Coefficient  wB (1 – n )
18
Labor Market Discrimination
Analysis
FIRM
Non Discriminatory
Firm
W = VMP
Discriminatory
Firm
White Firm
againts Black
Black Firm
againts Black
Discrimination
Coefficient
is very High
Discrimination
Coefficient
is relatively Low
19
1. Employer
Discrimination
20
Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)
WHITE
HISPANIC
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Highschool Graduate or
more (Percent)
84.3
85.2
78.5
78.9
56.1
57.9
Bachelor’s degree or more
(Percent)
29.1
25.4
16.4
17.5
11.0
11.2
Labor Force Participation
Rate (Percent)
79.9
59.9
72.1
65.2
83.8
59.3
Unemployment Rate
(Percent)
4.7
3.6
8.0
7.0
5.2
6.6
49.8
29.6
33.5
26.0
30.8
22.3
55.4
37.1
38.5
30.8
34.3
28.0
Annual Earnings (in $1,000)
Annual Earnings
(Full Time)
21
BLACK
Fact :
White Wage > Black Wage
22
1. Employer Discrimination
 Assumption
:
White Workers and Black Workers are
Perfect Subtitutes in Production.
 Firms’s
output depends on the total
number of workers hired, regardless of
their race  have the same Marginal
Product of Labor ( MPE )
23
Employer Discrimination
Production function:
q = f ( EW + EB )
q
 firm’s output
EW  number of white workers hired
EB
 number of black workers hired
24
Employment in
a non Discriminatory Firm
25
Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm

Both groups of workers have the same Value
of Marginal Product, a non discriminatory
firms will hire whichever group is Cheaper

Suppose that wW > wB , a firms that doesn’t
discriminate will hire black workers up to the
point where
wB = VMPE 
26
E
*
B
The Employment Decision of a Firm
That Does Not Discriminate
Dollar
VMPE
Black workers
wage is less than
wB = VMPE
white
wage
?
How many worker
will be hired..??
wB
EB*
Employment
27
Employment in
a
Discriminatory Firm
28
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
 The
employer act as if black wage is not
wB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d).
Where d is discrimination coefficient.
 The
employer’s hiring decision based on a
comparison wW and wB (1 + d)
 Hire
only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW
 Hire
only white if wB (1 + d) > wW
29
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm

As long as black and white workers are
perfect subtitutes, firms have a segregated
workforce.

Employer’s who have little prejudice and
hence have small discrimination coefficient,
will hire only BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).

Employer’s who are very prejudice and
have very large discrimination coefficient,
will hire only WHITES (called “White
Firm”).
30
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
WHITE FIRM
 The
white firm hires workers up to the
point where : wW = VMPE
 Assumption
: wW > WB
 The
white firm is paying an excessively
high price for its workers and hires
relatively few workers ( EW* )
31
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
wW
White Firm
VMPE
EW*
Employment
32
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
 Non
discriminatory firms :
*
wB = VMPE  E B
 If
discrimination coefficient d0 :
 Price of Black Labor  wB ( 1 + d0 )
 Amount
of Labor hired :
wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE
33
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
The number of black workers hired,
therefore, is smaller for firms that have
larger discrimination coefficient.
34
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
Discrimination Coefficient
wB 1  d1 
Black Firm
wB 1  d0 
wB
EB1
VMPE
E
35
0
B
E
*
B
Employment
Discrimination
and
Profits
36
Discrimination and Profits
Firms that discriminate lose on two counts :
 The
prejudiced employer could have hired
the same number of black worker at lower
wage. Because black and white workers are
perfect subtitutes.
 Discriminatory
black firms are hiring too
few workers ( E B0 or E B1 )  they are giving
up profits in order to minimize contact with
black workers.
37
Profit and Discrimination
Coefficient
Dollar
max
Max Profit
w
Black
Firm
0
White Firm
dw
Discrimination
Coefficient
38
Discrimination and Profits
The Most Profitable Firm 
Zero Discrimination
39
2. Employee Discrimination
40
Employee Discrimination

Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”

Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black
Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat
upah wW (1- d).

Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of
Firms” karena white worker dan black worker
adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm
membayar jumlah upah yang sama.
41
3. Customer
Discrimination
42
Customer Discrimination

Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R.
Ihlanfeldt (1998)  research di Atlanta,
Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.

Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh
Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted
Price  p (1 + d).

Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan
sesuai kondisi.
43
Customer Discrimination
Relation between customer discrimination and percent of newly
hired worked who are Black
More than 50 %
Of the firm’s
customers are
Black
More than 75 %
Of the firm’s
customers are
White
PERBEDAAN
Customer &
worker
bertemu
58,0 %
9,0 %
49,0 %
Customer &
worker tidak
bertemu
46,6 %
12,2 %
34,4 %
-
-
14,6 %
TYPE FIRM
Perbedaan
44
Customer Discrimination and
NBA
Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :
A study of attenance records indicates
that replacing a black player with an
eqqually talented white player bring in
about 9,000 additional fans per year.
At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of
ticket prices and concession revenues), the
racial switch would increase annual team
revenues by roughly $450,000
45
Measuring Discrimination
46
Measuring Discrimination
Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari
___
• Male, dengan average wage W
M
___
• Female, dengan average wage W F
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
___
___
___
 W  WM  WF
47
Measuring Discrimination
Pengembangan model :
Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning Function :
• Male
: wM
• Female
M
:
  M   M SM
wF   F   F SF
menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila
mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.
48
Measuring Discrimination
Model Regresi :
___
___
___
W  WM  WF   M   M s M   F   F s F
49
Measuring The Impact of
Discrimination on the Wage
Men’s Earning
Dollars
Men’s
Earning
Men’s
Earning
Function
___
WM
Women’s
Earning
Function
Women’s Earning
*
F
w
M
Measure Discrimination :
___
Woman’s
Earning
50
___
*Schooling
Women’sMen’s
Schooling
WF
F
wF
__
__
sF
sM
WF
Schooling
Global Gender Gap 2012
51
Global Gender Gap 2012 :
Indonesia - Rank
93
92
2008
2009
81
87
90
2010
2011
97
68
2006
2007
2012
52
Global Gender Gap 2012 :
Indonesia - Score
0.665
0.6615
0.66
0.655
0.6594
0.6591
2011
2012
0.658
0.6541
0.655
0.65
0.6473
0.645
0.64
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
53
Global Gender Gap Index 2012
Global Gender Gap 2012
55
Global Gender Gap 2012
56
Global Gender Gap 2012 :
Indonesia
57
Terima kasih…
58