Changing Patterns of International Student Mobility
Within the Asia Pacific Region: The Influence of
History, Culture and Language
Christopher Ziguras
8th Asia TEFL Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam
6-8 August 2010
Regional Student Mobility
2
‘Core-Periphery’ Mobility
Europe
United States
• International student
mobility was been
predominantly from:
– Post-colonial
states to former
colonial powers
– Newlyindustrialising
economies to
post-industrial
economies
3
Regional Mobility
• Over the past decade, as
trade and investment
between countries in the
region has grown, so has
student mobility
• More countries are seeking
to recruit international
students
• Historical, cultural,
economic, political and
linguistic connections
shape patterns of mobility
4
Inter-Regional Mobility of East Asia and Pacific Students
5
Top Ten Host Countries of East Asia and Pacific Students
6
Region of origin of international students in the Asia Pacific
7
National Patterns of Student Mobility
8
Percentage of tertiary age population
studying overseas
Income and International Student Mobility
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
GDP per capita, 2005
Note high mobility rates in small/island states
N epal
L aos
Banglades h
PNG
C ambodia
I ndia
I ndones ia
Sri L anka
P hilippines
Fiji
C hina
T hailand
M alays ia
South Korea
N ew Zealand
Brunei
M ac ao SA R
Singapore
J apan
A us tralia
H ong Kong SA R
U nited States
Income and International Student Mobility
Percentage of tertiary age
population studying overseas
4.0
N epal
L aos
Banglades h
PNG
3.0
C ambodia
I ndia
I ndones ia
S ri L anka
2.0
P hilippines
C hina
T hailand
M alays ia
1.0
S outh Korea
N ew Z ealand
J apan
A us tralia
0.0
0
10000
20000
30000
GDP per capita, 2005
40000
U nited S tates
Income and International Student Mobility
Percentage of tertiary age
population studying overseas
4.0
N epal
L aos
Banglades h
PNG
3.0
C ambodia
I ndia
I ndones ia
S ri L anka
2.0
P hilippines
C hina
T hailand
M alays ia
1.0
S outh Korea
N ew Z ealand
J apan
A us tralia
0.0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
GDP per capita, 2005
More data points are needed to test this curve
U nited S tates
Language Influences on Student Mobility
12
Anglophone destinations
• Of the 2.8 million students studying overseas for one year or more in 2007,
half (1.38 million) were studying in ten countries with English language higher
education systems
1. United States
2. United Kingdom
3.
4.
5.
6.
Australia
Canada
South Africa
New Zealand
7. Malaysia
8. Ireland
9. India
10. Philippines
13
Language of international study in non-Anglophone
education systems
• Common language in home and host country (eg. Arabic, Spanish, French)
• Study in national language of host country (eg. Japanese, German)
• Study in programs taught in English:
– English-taught programs in national universities (eg. Korea University,
Waseda University, Japan)
– New universities that teach in English (eg. all private universities in
Malaysia; Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan; Asia-Pacific
International University, Thailand)
– Branch campuses (RMIT International University Vietnam; Nottingham
University, China)
14
Intra-Regional Student Mobility
15
Arab States
•Shared language, culture, religion,
history
•Two thirds of Arab states have one
or more Arab states in their top five
destinations
•Major destination countries
• Lebanon 22,674
• Jordan 21,509
• Saudi Arabia 13,687
•Key issue – students and
educators will concentrate in the
safest, most cosmopolitan cities in
the Arab world
•Most international students are
studying in Arabic, or in new
English-language hubs in Dubai
and Qatar
16
Jordan
Source Countries of Students in Jordan, 2006
Palestinian Autonomous
Territories
• Top five destination
for students from:
– Palestine (1)
– Iraq (1)
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Israel
– Oman (1)
– Israel (2)
– Yemen (2)
– Kuwait (2)
– Mauritania (2)
Syrian Arab Republic
Oman
Kuwait
Yemen
– Saudi Arabia (3)
– Syria (3)
Malaysia
– Bahrain (3)
– Qatar (4)
Bahrain
Other countries
Total= 21,509
17
South Asia
• Long history of cultural and
economic interconnection,
tense relations since mid
C20
• India, Pakistan, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka
• Flow of students between
neighboring countries
negligible, limited by:
• High rate of population
growth and capacity
constraints limiting
supply
• Political tensions
leading to suspicion of
neighboring nationals
18
India
• Top five destination for
students from:
– Ethiopia (2)
– Bhutan (2)
– Nepal (4)
– Kenya (4)
– UAE (5)
– Mauritius (5)
– Seychelles (5)
Source Countries of Students in
India, 2007
Iran
United Arab Emirates
Nepal
Ethiopia
Saudi Arabia
Kenya
United States
Oman
Yemen
Bhutan
Other
Total= 18,594
Data Source: Association of Indian Universities, IIE
19
North East Asia
•Familiarity in writing systems,
Confucian heritage, long history of
interconnection
•Over-capacity in Japan and
Taiwan universities
• Major receiving countries
• Japan 125,877
• China 42,138
• South Korea 31,943
•School systems are more
focused on English than
neighbouring countries’ languages
•Growth in mobility appears to be
primarily in programs taught in
English
20
Japan
Source Countries of Students in Japan, 2007
• Top five
destination for
students from:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
China (2)
Korea (2)
Burma (2)
Mongolia (3)
Nepal (3)
Laos (3)
Sri Lanka (4)
Fiji (4)
Malaysia (4)
PNG (4)
Philippines (4)
Thailand (4)
Vietnam (4)
Bangladesh (4)
Australia (5)
Indonesia (5)
Cambodia (5)
China
South Korea
Viet Nam
Malaysia
United States of America
Thailand
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
Nepal
Mongolia
Other countries
Total= 125,877
21
China
Source Countries of Students in
China, 2008
• Does not provide source
country data to UNESCO
South Korea
Japan
United States
Vietnam
Thailand
Russia
India
Indonesia
France
Pakistan
Other
Total= 195,503 (includes non-degree students)
Data source: China Scholarship Council
22
South Korea
• Top five destination for
students from:
Source Countries of Students in South
Korea, 2007
– Mongolia (4)
China
Viet Nam
Japan
Mongolia
United States of America
Other
Total= 31,943
23
South East Asia
•Diverse languages, culture,
religion, history, but long
history of regional
interconnection
•Commitment from ASEAN
leaders to foster integration in
higher education
•Many English-language
educational institutions with
rapidly growing international
enrolments
24
Malaysia
• Top five destination for
students from:
Source Countries of Students in
Malaysia, 2006
– Maldives (1)
China
– Somalia (1)
Indonesia
– Sudan (1)
Bangladesh
– Libya (2)
Iran
– Yemen (3)
Pakistan
– Brunei (3)
Yemen
Thailand
– Indonesia (3)
India
– Oman (4)
Maldives
– Burma (4)
Sudan
– Singapore (4)
Other
– Djibouti (4)
– Thailand (5)
– Pakistan (5)
Total = 24,404
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Conclusions
• A growing share of the world’s internationally-mobile students are studying in
the Asia Pacific region, in a more diverse range of countries
• Some students will continue to study in the national language of the host
country, but most of the growth will be in programs taught in global English
• The desire for greater international student mobility across Asia is leading
universities to prioritise the development of programs and courses taught in
English, as has happened in Europe
26