Academic Writing
Academic Writing
Part One
1
Academic Writing
Agreement
• Nouns and pronouns must agree in
number
• Employees are free to express their (NOT
his/her) opinions (NOT opinion, unless
they only have one in common).
• Pronouns must agree with each
other
• Once one has decided on a strategy, one
(NOT you) must keep to it.
• Subjects and verbs must agree in
number
• Recent discoveries about the impact of EU
membership reveal (NOT reveals) that
there are various effects at the national
level.
2
Academic Writing
Agreement
• What about ’number’, ’either’,
’neither’, percentages,
fractions, etc.?
• See for example:
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbo
ok/ SubjectVerb.html
3
Academic Writing
Exercise: agreement
Agreement: choose the appropriate verb form:
1. Either the employees of this company or the
administration ____ going to have to make a
decision. (is or are?)
2. Some of the patients __________ to have been
mistreated. (seem or seems?)
3. The migratory birds that travel through this area
every spring _____ more than just an annoyance. (is
or are?)
4. Everyone selected to serve on this committee _____
to be able to give up a lot of time from other tasks.
(has or have?)
5. Tara Walters, together with her team, _________ a
formidable taskforce. (forms or form?)
6. He seems to forget that there __________ matters
to be finalized before he can take his pension. (is or
are?)
7. There _______ to be some people present despite
the recent uproar. (have or has?)
8. Some of the material __________ to be
contaminated. (appear or appears?)
9. Three-quarters of the inhabitants __________
against the tax increase. (is or are?)
10. Three-quarters of the population__________
against the tax increase. (is or are?)
11. A high percentage of the population _________
voting for the renewed town plan. (is or are?)
12. The personnel _______ on vacation this time every
year. (is or are?)
4
Academic Writing
Agreement * KEY
1. Either the employees of this company or the
administration is going to have to make a decision. (is
or are?) COMMENT: ”is” = agreement by proximity
2. Some of the patients seem to have been mistreated.
(seem or seems?)
COMMENT See e.g.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslsubverb.html
3. The migratory birds that travel through this area every
spring are more than just an annoyance. (is or are?)
4. Everyone selected to serve on this committee has to be
able to give up a lot of time from other tasks. (has or
have?)
COMMENT See e.g.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslsubverb.html
5. Tara Walters, together with her team, presents a
formidable taskforce. (presents or present?)
6. He seems to forget that there are matters to be finalized
before he can take his pension. (is or are?)
7. There have to be some people present despite the
recent uproar. (have or has?)
8. Some of the material appears to be contaminated.
(appear or appears?)
9. Three-quarters of the inhabitants are against the tax
increase. (is or are?)
10. Three-quarters of the population is [OR: are] against
the tax increase. (is or are?)
COMMENT: ”is” = agreement with [part, not all of] student body, a
singular subject; ”are” = notional agreement (a plural entity)
11. A high percentage of the population is voting for the
renewed town plan. (is or are?)
12. The personnel is on vacation this time every year. (is
5
or are?)
Academic Writing
Sentence fragments
• A sentence always includes at
least a subject and an
inflecting verb:
• NO: The liquid was poured into a
glass container. Being a strong
substance.
• YES: Because the liquid was a
strong substance, it was poured
into a glass container.
• Please go to:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/
grammar/g_fragEX2.html
Consider paragraphs 2, 3 and 5. Identify
and improve the fragments in the
paragraphs.
6
Academic Writing
Exercise: fragments * KEY
A. For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center
at the University of Michigan has been measuring the
level of Americans' trust and confidence in their
politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in
their political institutions and their leaders. "Political"
means all levels of government, and "quasi-political"
[means] churches, labor unions, large professional/
business associations, educational institutions, and the
like. The result is that a very sharp decline has taken
place every year since 1964.
B. For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better
homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence
no longer exists. Polls now indicate that fewer
Americans who feel they are better off today than they
were five years ago. A public-opinion analysis group
has found that large numbers of Americans, at some
times and in some places, see themselves as lower on
the ladder. They also mention worse living conditions
and anticipation of further decline over the next five
years.
C. A president is an appointed leader, someone who is a
decision maker in the executive branch of our
government. This does not necessarily mean that the
person the people elect is capable. [They just
(hopefully) assume so.] They base their assumption
on his past record as a politician and his
experience of handling situations.
(adapted from: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/
grammar/g_fragA2.html)
7
Academic Writing
Passives
• Although it is often said that the
passive voice should be used in
academic writing as a reflection of
objectivity and impersonality,
passives should not be overused.
Often, other structures with an
impersonal approach may produce
better results:
• Instead of writing
A number of things are indicated by these
results.
you could write
These results indicate a number of things.
without compromising the impersonality of
the sentence.
8
Academic Writing
COMMENTS
• On the passive voice, see e.g .
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html
• and
http://www.bartleby.com/141/strunk5.html#11
9
Academic Writing
Passives
• Instead of using passives, consider
using non-personal subjects in
active sentences, structures
beginning with ’it’ and ’there’, and
other similar structures.
• Use passives:
• 1. To emphasize an object.
– Over 50 percent of the votes are required
to pass the bill.
• 2. To de-emphasize an unknown
subject/actor.
– Over 120 different toxic substances have
been dumped into the river.
• 3. If your readers do not need to know
who is responsible for the action.
10
Academic Writing
Exercise: passives
Passives: What do you think about the use of the
passive in these extracts? Write a new version of
the text so that you replace all passives by other
forms of impersonality. In extracts 2 and 3, some
of the passives are ill-formed. Correct the
mistaken passive structures.
EXTRACT 1. By science is meant, literally,
knowledge. But it is knowledge which has been
critically examined, rigorously tested and ordered
into a system of ideas. By science is implied a
method of assessing and understanding knowledge.
In the natural sciences are included the physical
sciences by which non-living substances are dealt
with, the biological sciences by which living things
are studied, and medicine in so far as humans are
studied by it as biological systems. It was these
natural sciences in particular by which were enabled
the development of rigorous and objective methods
for the acquisition of new knowledge which would be
of universal application in the development of
modern civilization.
11
Academic Writing
Exercise: passives * KEY
EXTRACT 1. Science means [literally]
knowledge. But it is knowledge
critically examined, rigorously tested
and ordered into a system of ideas.
Science implies a method of
assessing and understanding
knowledge. The natural sciences
include the physical sciences which
deal with non-living substances, the
biological sciences which study living
things, and medicine which studies
humans as biological systems. These
natural sciences in particular enabled
the development of rigorous and
objective methods for the acquisition
of new knowledge which would be of
universal application in the
development of modern civilization.
12
Academic Writing
Passives (2): Correct the passives
EXTRACT 2. Electricity, which has got from
the sun during the day, is conserved in
the traditional lead accumulators. Even in
private houses, they are fit on a solid
bottom and they have covered with glass
or transparent plastic. The accumulator
has to change every second of third year.
EXTRACT 3. Because of the constant virus
threat, computer networks have protected
against any intrusion from outside.
Experts will tell the user how this can
done.
13
Academic Writing
Passives (2): * KEY
• EXTRACT 2. Electricity, which is
obtained from the sun during the day, is
conserved in the traditional lead
accumulators. Even in private houses,
they are fitted on a solid bottom and they
are covered with glass or transparent
plastic. The accumulator has to be
changed every second of third year.
• EXTRACT 3. Because of the constant
virus threat, computer networks have to
be protected against any intrusion from
outside. Experts will tell the user how this
can be done.
14
Academic Writing
Basic and intermediate level exercises for
training the passive voice
• http://www.better-english.com/grammar/passive1.htm
• http://www.learnenglish.be/EX_gram2_pass.htm
• http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/Grammar/Gramma
r-passive_voice.asp
• http://www.ego4u.com/en/cramup/grammar/passive/exercises?present-progressive
15
Academic Writing
Mistaken parallels
• When you use conjunctions
such as ’and’, ’or’, and so on,
notice that you should only link
grammatically similar
elements:
• Wrong: Drinking, smoking, and too
little exercise have an effect on the
national economy.
• OK: Drinking, smoking, and
exercising too little have an effect
on the national economy.
16
Academic Writing
Exercise: parallels
Improve the mistaken parallels:
1. During the company recreation day, we would
prefer hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
2. The person in charge was demanded to write a
report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed
manner.
3. The headmaster reproached the students
because they waited until the last minute to
study for the exam, completed lab problems in a
careless manner, and their motivation was low.
4. The sales representative expected that he would
present his product at the meeting, that there
would be time for him to show his PowerPoint
presentation, and that numerous questions
would be asked by prospective buyers.
5. This online dictionary and grammar can be used
for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciation advice, correct spellings, and
looking up irregular verb forms.
6. Today’s automobiles include systems that
analyse sensor data and for alerting the driver,
for example the antilock braking system (ABS).
17
Academic Writing
Exercise: parallels * KEY
1. During the company recreation day, we would prefer
hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.
2. The person in charge was demanded to write a
report quickly, accurately, and descriptively. (…
his report quickly in an accurate and detailed
manner).
3. The headmaster reproached the students because
they waited until the last minute to study for the
exam, completed their lab problems in a careless
manner, and had a low motivation.
4. The sales representative expected that he would
present his product at the meeting, have time to
show his PowerPoint presentation, and hear
numerous questions asked by prospective
buyers.
5. This online dictionary and grammar can be used for
these purposes: for finding word meanings,
pronunciation advice, and correct spellings, and
for looking up irregular verb forms.
6. Today’s automobiles include systems that analyse
sensor data and alert the driver, for example the
antilock braking system (ABS).
18
Academic Writing
Pronouns without a clear link
• Make sure that pronouns such
as ’it’ and ’this’ refer to
something specific:
• Wrong: In the study it suggests
that…
• OK: The study suggests that…
• Wrong: The committee decided to
meet in January, but this did not
happen until May
• OK: The committee decided to
meet in January, but the meeting
did not take place until May.
19
Academic Writing
Exercise: pronouns
Do not use pronouns vaguely or
ambiguously. Correct the following:
• Wrong: Many people say they
should not show so much violence
on TV.
• Wrong: Although the test tube was
not on the table at the time of the
accident, it had been damaged.
• Wrong: A 7-day extension of the
holiday season is being planned,
which is convenient for the
employees.
• Wrong: The young man worked for
the national railways last summer.
This may be his life's work.
20
Academic Writing
Exercise: pronouns * KEY
• Many people say there should not
be so much violence on TV.
• Although the test tube was not on
the table at the time of the
accident, the tube had been
damaged.
• A 7-day extension of the holiday
season is being planned. Such an
extension is convenient for the
employees.
• The young man worked for the
national railways last summer. The
job may be his life's work.
21
Academic Writing
Faulty word choice
• Do not use ’fancy’ words just for the
sake of using them (’feline olfactory
organ’ vs. ’cat’s nose’).
• Use a dictionary to check words
whose meaning or spelling you are
not certain of.
• Consider:
•
•
•
•
•
•
affect/effect
alternately/alternatively
amount/number
complement/compliment
principal/principle
through/trough
22
Academic Writing
What is wrong with the choice
of words?
Improve the choice of words in these extracts:
EXTRACT 1. Computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM) emphasizes that all aspects of manufacturing
should be computerized and linked into an
integrated whole via a computer communication
network.
EXTRACT 2. Electricity that comes from the sun is
stored in an accumulator, and in the evening it is
used for TV and lightning.
EXTRACT 3. A gas turbine, as the name says, uses
pressurized gas for turning the turbine. This article
considers basic issues about designing turbines
driven by gas.
EXTRACT 4. Because the microstructure of heattreated wood changes pipe-like, the ends of the
board absorb more moisture compared to nontreated wood. Therefore the boat should be
protected with boat varnish.
EXTRACT 5. The manager had also heard that
there were constant problems with electric
supplying.
23
Academic Writing
Choice of words * KEY
EXTRACT 1. Computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM) means that all aspects of manufacturing are
computerized and linked into an integrated whole
via a computer communication network.
EXTRACT 2. Electricity that comes from the sun is
stored in an accumulator, and in the evening it is
used for [watching/viewing] TV and [for] lighting.
EXTRACT 3. A gas turbine, as the name says,
uses pressurized gas for turning the turbine. This
article deals with basic issues of designing
turbines driven by gas.
EXTRACT 4. Because the microstructure of heattreated wood becomes pipe-like, the ends of the
board absorb more moisture compared to nontreated wood. Therefore the boat should be
protected with boat varnish.
EXTRACT 5. The manager had also heard that
there were constant problems with electricity
supply.
24
Academic Writing
Relative clauses (1)
Please bear in mind the following regarding
relative clauses:
A. Relative Pronouns
1. In relative clauses, who is typically used to
refer to people.
2. That and which are typically used for nonhuman referents. Items such as where and
when are also used in relative meanings.
3. Please notice that what does not have the
same relative meanings in English that similar
items have in many other languages.
The only meaning of what that is linked to
relative structures is the so-called what-cleft:
What is important is the usefulness of the
theory. (=that which, the matter that).
Therefore, do not write: This thesis deals with
network solutions what are relatively new in
China
25
Academic Writing
Relative clauses (2)
B. Punctuation and Types of Relative Clause
1. When forming relative clauses, pay attention to the
use of commas. A relative clause beginning with that is
never separated by a comma. This is because thatrelatives are restrictive; essential to the content of the
sentence:
The idea that cash should be abolished is not a novel
one.
2. Problems typically arise in the use of who and which,
because they can be used in both restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses. To illustrate the difference in
meaning, let us take a simplified example:
a) The children who were eating ice cream were happy.
In sentence a) the relative clause is restrictive, also
referred to as a defining relative clause. The relative
clause identifies those children who are happy from a
larger group of children (those eating ice cream were
happy, the ones without ice cream possibly not).
b) The children, who were eating ice cream, were
happy.
In sentence b) who introduces a non-restrictive and
thus non-defining relative clause. The relative clause
merely gives additional information about all of the
children being talked about, but no cause-effect
relationship between ice cream and happiness is
suggested (the children were happy, and, by the way,
they were also eating ice cream).
In sum, the use of commas in relative clauses may
have a significant impact on meaning.
26
Academic Writing
Exercises: relative clauses
Add suitable relative pronouns. Also add
commas where necessary:
1. Light fuel oil _____ is lighter than water
rises to the surface.
2. Taxicabs _____ do not have seatbelts are
still legal in some countries.
3. Blue jeans _____ were once in vogue
have not been fashionable for several
years now.
4. Students _____ do not usually talk about
their feelings said the scholarship
changes had upset them.
5. The ginkgo tree _____ leaves _____ turn
bright yellow in the fall came to Europe
from Asia.
6. Fred and Wilma _____ often copy
Internet material just harm themselves.
7. Students _____ copy Internet material
only harm themselves.
8. The candidate _____ had the smallest
budget won the election.
27
Academic Writing
Exercises: relative clauses * KEY
1.Light fuel oil, which is lighter than water, rises
to the surface.
2. Taxicabs that/which do not have seatbelts
are still legal in some countries.
3. Blue jeans, which were once in vogue, have
not been fashionable for several years now.
4. Students who [that] do not usually talk about
their feelings said the scholarship changes
had upset them.
5. The ginkgo tree, the leaves of which turn
bright yellow in the fall, came to Europe from
Asia.
6. Fred and Wilma , who often copy Internet
material, just harm themselves.
7. Students who copy Internet material only
harm themselves.
8. The candidate who had the smallest budget
won the election.
28
Academic Writing
Which article to use?
A proper noun or a common noun?
Plural
- the
Singular zero article
Specific
General (indefinite)
Uncountable or countable?
the
These general
rules apply to
the majority of
cases. Certain
exceptions do,
however, exist.
The rule of
thumb is: If in
doubt, leave
the article out.
zero article
Plural
Singular
zero article
if followed by
a consonant
if followed
by a vowel
29
a
an
Academic Writing
Article use
• Remember that all countable nouns
need an article in the singular, either a/an
or the.
• The is used with both countable and
uncountable nouns in both the singular
and plural when the noun is already
known from the context or presumed
otherwise known.
• Proper names are normally used without
any article, except for some special cases
(the United Nations, the Hague, the
Thames, etc.)
• Examples: A representative of our
company received (Ø) information about
(Ø) explosions in London. The
information shook the employee (=a
representative of our company) as well as
many others visibly, because our
company had just opened a branch office
in London. Later, the explosions proved
to be (Ø) accidents that took place quite
30
far from the office.
Academic Writing
Exercise: article use
All articles have been omitted from this
text extract. Insert a, an, or the where
necessary:
Learning foreign language is important in intercultural
business communication (IBC) studies. But equally
important is development of intercultural
communicative competence, that is, recognition of
cultural factors that influence behavior in business
encounters around globe. This study suggests how
tertiary-level foreign language courses can be
contextualized to promote intercultural learning geared
to achieving awareness of cultural diversity and
understanding of different modes of living and
behavior. It describes learning projects and tasks
incorporated into 1st-year IBC program at Nijmegen
University in Netherlands, where integrative approach
to course programming was introduced in 2001-2002.
• (Adapted from: Korzilius, H., Planken, B., and Van
Hooft, A. 2004. Promoting Intercultural
Communicative Competence through Foreign
Language Courses. Business Communication
Quarterly, Vol. 67.)
31
Academic Writing
Exercise: article use
Learning a foreign language is important in
intercultural business communication (IBC)
studies. But equally important is the
development of intercultural communicative
competence, that is, the recognition of
cultural factors that influence behavior in
business encounters around the globe. This
study suggests how tertiary-level foreign
language courses can be contextualized to
promote intercultural learning geared to
achieving the awareness of cultural
diversity and understanding of different
modes of living and behavior. It describes
[the] learning projects and tasks
incorporated into a 1st-year IBC program at
Nijmegen University in the Netherlands,
where an integrative approach to course
programming was introduced in 2001-2002.
32
Academic Writing
Exercise: article use (2)
Proof-read by adding or
removing articles (a, an, the):
EXTRACT 1. In the next phase,
remaining sulphuric dioxide is oxidised
in two last catalyst beds. Formed
sulphuric trioxide is absorbed in
concluding absorption tower.
EXTRACT 2. About 60 percent of
sulphuric acid transportation is
organised by three methods: by truck,
train or by ship. There are different
loading places for tank trucks, trains and
ships. The rest 40 per cent of the
transportation takes place by pipe lines.
33
Academic Writing
Exercise: article use (2)
EXTRACT 1. In the next phase,
the remaining sulphuric dioxide is
oxidised in the two last catalyst
beds. The formed sulphuric trioxide
is absorbed in a concluding
absorption tower.
EXTRACT 2. About 60 per cent of
sulphuric acid transportation is
organised by three methods: by
truck, train or by ship. There are
different loading places for tank
trucks, trains and ships. The rest 40
per cent of (Ø) transportation takes
place by pipe lines.
34
Academic Writing
Word order
• Now it is time to add your planned
text into the document.
• He visited also Scansped and they
gave some information about the
topic.
• But if you need electricity daily, the
only way to have electricity enough
is to add more solar panels.
• From the acid tank is sulphuric acid
pumped to a heat exchanger where
it is cooled.
• Pictures and texts are added to a
DreamWeaver page visually so
that you do not need to know
necessarily anything about coding.
35
Academic Writing
Word order * KEY
• Now it is time to add the text you
planned into the document.
• He also visited Scansped and they
gave some information about the
topic.
• But if you need electricity daily, the
only way to have enough electricity
is to add more solar panels.
• From the acid tank sulphuric acid is
pumped to a heat exchanger where it
is cooled.
• Pictures and texts are added to a
DreamWeaver page visually so that
you do not necessarily need to
know anything about coding.
36
Academic Writing
Word Order
HTML files to be used for self-study
37