Promoting the Self-Determination of
Youth and Adults with Autism
Spectrum Disorders
Michael Wehmeyer, Ph.D.
Professor, Special Education
Director, Kansas University Center on Developmental Disabilities
Senior Scientist, Beach Center on Disability
University of Kansas
self-determination: noun
(sèlf´dî-tûr´me-nâ´shen)
Determination of one's own fate or course
of action without compulsion;
2.
Freedom of the people of a given area to
determine their own political status;
independence.
1.
self-determined, adj.-- self-determining, adj.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
Third Edition (1992). Houghton Mifflin Company.
Self-Determination in Personality
Psychology


Self-determination as a personality construct
proposes that one’s life course is “determined” (e.g.,
caused) by either autonomous and heteronomous
functions, where autonomous means self-governing
or governed from inside, and heteronomous means
governed from outside.
Doctrine of Determinism: The doctrine that all
phenomena, including behavior, are effects of
preceding causes.
Self-Determination and Disability

Within the context of the disability rights and
advocacy movement, the construct as a personal
characteristic has been imbued with the
empowerment and “rights” orientation typically
associated with the sense of the term as a national
or political construct. Empowerment is a term
usually associated with social movements, and
typically is used, as Rappaport (1981) stated, in
reference to actions that “enhance the possibilities
for people to control their lives” (p. 15).
Self-Determination and Disability


"People with autism should be treated with
the same dignity, respect, and equality as
people without autism" (Bovee, 2000, p. 250251).
"We [people with disabilities] don't have to be
told what self-determination means. We
know it is just another word for a life filled
with rising expectations, dignity, respect and
opportunities" (Williams, 1989, p. 2).
A Functional Theory of SelfDetermination



Self-determined behavior refers to volitional actions
that enable one to act as the primary causal agent in
one’s life and to maintain or improve one’s quality of
life.
A causal agent is someone who makes or causes
things to happen in his or her life.
Self-determination contributes to a person’s overall
quality of life (Schalock, 1996).
The Emergence of SelfDetermination



Enhanced capacity as a result of:
 attainment of developmental milestones;
 acquisition of component elements.
Opportunity to assume control as a result of:
 environments that support control and choice;
 frequent experiences of choice and control.
Supports and accommodations.
Self-Determination: What
Does Research Tell Us?
Finding Summary #1:
Self-Determination Status

Research shows that youth/adults with disabilities
are less self-determined than their non-disabled
peers.


It is important, however, not to assume that this in any way reflects
the capacity of people with disabilities to become self-determined.
The research clearly shows that people with disabilities have many
fewer opportunities to make choices and express preferences
across their daily lives.
As such, efforts to intervene to promote self-determination are
critical if being “self-determined” is an important outcome for
youth with disabilities.
Finding Summary #2:
Self-Determination and Adult Outcomes



Multiple research studies find that a person’s selfdetermination status predicts higher quality of life.
Self-determination status is positively correlated with
more positive post-secondary outcomes, including
employment, independent living, and community
inclusion for youth with disabilities.
Young adults who are more engaged in personally-valued
recreation activities are more self-determined, suggesting
a reciprocal relationship between recreation activities and
self-determination.
Finding Summary #2:
Self-Determination and Adult Outcomes
(continued)

Students with disabilities who leave school as
self-determined young people:





Are more independent one year after graduation.
Are more likely to live somewhere other than where they lived in high
school one year after graduation.
Are significantly more likely to be employed for pay at higher wages
one year after graduation.
Are significantly more likely to be employed in a position that provides
health care, sick leave, and vacation benefits three years after
graduation.
Are significantly more likely to live independently three years after
graduation.
Finding Summary #3:
Factors Contributing to Self-Determination



Social abilities and adaptive behavior skills are related to
more positive self-determination.
Choice-making opportunity is a strong predictor of selfdetermination. Research shows that the environments in
which adults with disabilities live or work limit
opportunities to make choices and restrict personal
autonomy.
Although many people believe that people with intellectual
disability cannot be self-determined because of their
cognitive impairment, research consistently shows that
while SD is positively correlated with IQ, that relationship
is generally weak and IQ is not predictive of selfdetermination status.
Finding Summary #4:
Perceptions of Self-Determination


Adults with disabilities themselves rank self-determination as more
important than do professionals and parents/family members.
Special education teachers report that:

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

they are familiar with self-determination;
believe self-determination is an important component of transition planning;
believe that student involvement in planning is important;
their level of training, students’ type and level of disability, and type of
teaching placement impact their ratings of the importance of promoting selfdetermination.
Parents of school-age students with disabilities perceive promotion of selfdetermination as important.

Report that they do not believe that their sons/daughters receive enough
instruction on component elements of self-determined behavior at school.
Finding Summary #5:
Efforts to Promote Self-Determination

Despite wide acceptance of the importance of self-determination,
research has consistently found that explicit instruction to promote
self-determination during the school years is limited, though more
recent studies suggest that this situation may be changing.



Goals addressing self-determination are not included on many student’s
Individualized Education Programs.
When efforts to promote self-determination are in place, there are few
efforts to systematically assess the effect of those interventions.
Teachers report that barriers to promoting self-determination include:




Their belief about whether the student will benefit;
Insufficient time, particularly in context of No Child Left Behind;
Insufficient training to and knowledge about promoting selfdetermination.
Insufficient time to plan to integrate instruction to promote selfdetermination into the instructional day.
Finding Summary #6:
Interventions to Promote Self-Determination

Data exists to support the efficacy of several self-determinationfocused intervention models/programs, including:




Steps to Self-Determination (Hoffman & Field, 1995)
TAKE CHARGE for the Future (Powers et al., 2001)
Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (Wehmeyer, Palmer,
Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000)
Meta-analytic (group and single-subject design studies) of existing
research show that that students with disabilities can acquire
component elements of self-determined behavior (e.g., choice
making, decision making, problem solving, goal setting and
attainment, self-advocacy, self-regulation, perceptions of efficacy,
self-awareness, self-knowledge) if taught.

Student-directed learning strategies particularly powerful.
What do We Know about SelfDetermination and Autism?
What do We Know about SelfDetermination and People with Autism?


Not much!
Several areas of particular focus are probably
warranted:




Problem solving
Goal setting
Decision making
Self-awareness and self-knowledge
Issues in Problem Solving and Autism




Reciprocal social interactions involving the mutual, equitable
exchange of socially-related information and emotions often
pose significant difficulties for people with ASD.
Most social interactions require problem solving skills for
successful navigation of the interaction.
Adolescents with Autism have demonstrated difficulty in
determining social solutions to problems as well as difficulty
in responding quickly in social situations (Channon,
Charman, Heap, Crawford & Rios, 2001; Hill & Bird, 2006).
When compared to neurotypically developing adolescents,
adolescents with HFASD generated fewer high quality
solutions to social problems and were less likely to choose
the best solutions, and exhibited lower levels of abstract
problem solving (Channon, et al., 2001).
Issues in Problem Solving and Autism

Most research/practice to promote social/emotional
understanding has focused exclusively on social
skills, without addressing social problem solving.
Some exceptions, though, exist:



Bauminger (2002) used role playing to teach students with
ASD social problem solving.
Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, and Nakhoda-Sapuan (2001)
developed video-based computer program to teach social
problem solving.
Need much more research and practice pertaining to
promoting problem solving skills, particularly social
problem solving skills.
Issues in Goal Setting and Autism

Students with autism may have a difficult
time attending to multiple goals. Research
has shown that students with autism tend to be
more sequential in their goal-directed
behavior. They tend have difficulty engaging
in multiple goal-directed activities
concurrently, but also tend to jump from
activity to activity in the process of goal
attainment (Ruble & Scott, 2002).
Issues in Decision Making and
Autism

Students with autism may have relatively
more difficulty processing the emotions
associated with the decision-making process,
given that this is often a process characterized
by uncertainty,which may be difficult for
some students with autism spectrum disorder,
when compared with other populations.
Promoting Self-Determination
Methods, Materials, &
Strategies
Promoting Self-Determination



Instruction on component elements
of determined behavior;
Self-determination curricula and
assessment materials;
Student-directed planning materials
Component Elements of SelfDetermined Behavior









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Choice-making
Decision-making
Problem-solving
Goal setting and attainment
Self-advocacy
Self-observation, evaluation and reinforcement
Internal locus of control
Positive attributions of efficacy and outcome expectancy
Self-awareness
Self-knowledge
Choice Making

Making a choice =


Indicating a preference
Between two or more options
Napoleon Bonaparte
“Ability is of
little account
without
opportunity”
Issues in Choice Making for Students
with Autism Spectrum Disorders


Students with ASD have fewer opportunities to learn about
preferences based on personal experiences than their nondisabled peers.
Students with ASD with communication impairments may
not be able to express preferences in traditional ways.


Problem behavior as an expression of preference.
Students with ASD who have special interest areas may focus
choices exclusively on that as opposed to wider range of
options.

On the other hand, of course, special interest areas provide an
opportunity to intergrate choice making into almost any activity.
Choice Making



Particularly important for childhood/early
elementary. Provides opportunity to teach
students they have a voice in their education.
Including a choice opportunity within
behavioral interventions has been shown to
improve outcomes.
People’s preferences change. Just because a
student liked something at one time doesn’t
mean he or she will like it at another time.

Assess frequently.
Integrating Choices Into
Teaching





incorporating student choice as an early step in the
instructional process;
increasing the number of choices related to a given activity
which the student makes;
increasing the number of domains in which choices are made;
raising the significance in terms of risk and long-term
consequences of the choices which the student makes; and
clear communication with the student concerning areas of
possible choice, and the limits within which choices can be
made (Shevin & Klein, 1984, pp. 164).
Promoting Problem-Solving


A problem is an activity or task for which a solution
is not known or readily apparent.
Three focal points to instruction in problem solving:




problem identification;
problem explication and analysis;
problem resolution.
Should occur within environments that emphasize;



student’s capacity to solve problems;
promote open inquiry and exploration
encourage generalization.
Issues in Problem Solving for Students
with Autism Spectrum Disorders


Many, if not most, of the types of problems that need to be
addressed are social in nature and involve one’s interactions
with others.
Any difficulty in understanding social and emotional cues
will, in turn, impact a student’s capacity to identify and
analyze the problem.



Most research/practice to promote social/emotional understanding has
focused exclusively on social skills, without addressing social
problem solving.
Some exceptions to above:
Bauminger (2002) used role playing to teach students with ASD
social problem solving.
Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, and Nakhoda-Sapuan (2001) developed
video-based computer program to teach social problem solving.
Promoting Decision-Making
Most models of decision making incorporate the
following steps:
 listing relevant action alternatives;
 identifying possible consequences of those actions
 assessing the probability of each consequence
occurring (if the action were undertaken);
 establishing the relative importance (value or utility)
of each consequence;
 integrating these values and probabilities to identify
the most attractive course of action.
Goal Setting and Attainment


Goal setting theory is built on the underlying
assumption that goals are regulators of human
action.
Effects of goal setting on behavior is a
function of goal difficulty and specificity as
well as previous experience with the activity
or action.
Goal Setting and Attainment

Instructional efforts to promote goal setting
and attainment should focus on:





Goal identification and enunciation
Developing objectives to meet goals;
Identifying actions necessary to achieve goals;
Tracking and following progress on goals.
Participation in educational planning and
decision-making as ideal generalization
mechanism.
Promoting Self-Advocacy Skills


Skills needed to advocate on one’s own
behalf;
Will focus on two common threads;



how to advocate;
what to advocate;
Particularly important during secondary
education, should be tied directly to
educational planning meeting.
Promoting Self-Advocacy Skills

How to advocate:

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rights and responsibilities;
assertiveness vs. aggressiveness;
communicating effectively (one-on-one, small
group)
negotiation, compromise and persuasion;
effective listening;
basic leadership and team skills
Self-Regulation and StudentDirected Learning



Self-regulation is as "a complex response system that enables
individuals to examine their environments and their
repertoires of responses for coping with those environments
to make decisions about how to act, to act, to evaluate the
desirability of the outcomes of the action, and to revise their
plans as necessary" (Whitman, 1990, p. 373).
Self-regulated learning is “the process whereby students
activate and sustain cognitions, behaviors, and affects that are
systematically oriented toward the attainment of goals”
(Schunk, 1994; p. 75).
Self-regulated behavior involves the use of self-direction and
self-management to regulate the process of setting goals,
developing action plans to achieve those goals, implementing
and following the action plans, evaluating the outcomes of the
action plan, and changing actions plans, if the goal was not
achieved (Mithaug, 1993).
Student-Directed Learning
Strategies


Self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-scheduling,
self-reinforcement, and self-managed antecedent cue
strategies.
Research has shown that interventions using studentdirected learning/self-management strategies have
led to improved problem solving skills, improved
communicative behavior, improved daily living
skills, better academic performance, and reductions
in disruptive behavior for students with autism
spectrum disorders.
Student Involvement and SelfDetermination



Research has shown that students with disabilities are not
major players in their IEP/transition planning meetings.
Research has also shown that students with disabilities can
learn the skills to be active participants in their IEP/transition
planning meetings.
Research suggests that student involvement has a reciprocal
effect with self-determination. That is, students who are more
self-determined are more likely to be involved in their
educational planning, but getting students involved in their
planning—independent of their level of self-determination—
enhances self-determination.
Promoting Self-Awareness and
Self-Understanding




recognition and identification of physical and
psychological needs, and how to meet those
needs;
identify and communicate own interests,
beliefs and values;
understand and accept individual differences;
handling frustration and stress
Self-Determined Learning Model of
Instruction


A plan or pattern that can be used to shape
curricula, design instructional or assessment
materials, and guide instruction in the
classroom and other settings.
Models of teaching derived from theories
about human behavior, cognition, or learning
(e.g., information processing models;
behavioral models; social interaction models,
etc.).
Self-Determined Learning Model of
Instruction
 A model
of teaching based on the principles of selfdetermination and student directed learning.
 Primary emphasis is to enable students to apply a
problem solving, goal oriented strategy to self-direct
learning.
 Model has 3 phases:



Setting a Learning Goal;
Constructing a Learning Plan;
Adjusting Behaviors;
 Each Phase has 3 components:

Student questions;

Teacher objectives;

Instructional strategies.
What is Student-Directed?


The key to student-directed is that the student retains
control over his or her learning process, even when
others (teachers, parents, peers) participate.
Not the same as doing everything by yourself. That
is, students will vary a great deal in the degree to
which they can work through the materials
independently. Factors which influence this include:



Reading or writing skills;
Confidence in working alone or in small groups;
Practice with self-directed instruction.
What is the Teacher’s Role?

Facilitator

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
Teacher



Do what it takes to enable student to succeed;
Provide accommodations and support;
Share expertise in promoting learning;
Source of information about education;
Advocate


Communicate to students that they can succeed;
Work collaboratively with student to achieve shared goals.
Instructional Process for SDLMI

Each phase has a problem to solve





Phase 1: What is my goal?
Phase 2: What is my plan?
Phase 3: What have I learned?
A problem is a task, activity, or situation for which a
solution is not immediately identified, known, or
obtainable.
Solving a problem is the process of identifying a
solution that resolves the initial perplexity or
difficulty.
Instructional Process for SDLMI

Solving the problem in each phase leads to the next
phase.

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
Solving the “what is my goal” problem leads to setting a goal.
Setting a goal leads to the need for an action plan.
Solving the “what is my plan” problem leads to the design
and implementation of an action plan to achieve the goal.
Implementing the plan leads to the need to track progress
toward the goal.
Solving the “what have I learned” problem leads to either
goal completion, revision of the plan, or revision of the goal.
Instructional Process for SDLMI


The problem in each phase is solved by
answering a set of four questions.
The questions change based on the problem
to be solved, but they represent the four steps
in any problem solving process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identify the problem
Identify potential solutions to the problem
Identify barriers to solving the problem
Identify consequences of each solution
Phas e 1: Se t a Goal
Student Problem to Solv e: What is my goal?
Educational Supports

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Student self-assessment of interests,
abilities, and instructional needs.
Awareness T raining.
Choice-Making Instruction.
Problem-Solving Instruction.
Decision-Making Instruction.
Goal Setting Instruction
Teacher Obj ectiv es

Student Question 1: What do I w ant to
learn?


Enable students to identify
specific strengths and
instructional needs.
Enable students to communicate
preferences, interests, beliefs and
values.
T each students to prioritize
needs.
Teacher Obj ectiv es

Student Question 2: What do I know
about it now ?

Enable students to identify their
current status in relation to the
instructional need.
Assist students to gather
information about opportunities
and barriers in their environments.
Teacher Obj ectiv es

Student Question 3: What must
change for me to learn w hat I don't
know ?

Enable students to decide if
action will be focused toward
capacity building, modifying the
environment, or both.
Support students to choose a
need to address from the
prioritized list.
Teacher Obj ectiv es
Student Question 4: What can I do to
make this happen?

Go to Phase 2
T each students to state a goal
and identify criteria for achieving
goal.
Phas e 2: Tak e Action
Educational Supports
Student Problem to Solv e: What is my plan?










Self-scheduling.
Self-Instruction.
Antecedent Cue Regulation.
Choice-making instruction.
Goal-Attainment strategies.
Problem-solving instruction.
Decision-making instruction.
Self-Advocacy and assertiveness training.
Communication skills training.
Self-monitoring.
Teacher Obj ectiv es
Student Question 5: What can I do to
learn w hat I don't know ?

Enable student to self-evaluate
current status and self-identified
goal status.
Teacher Obj ectiv es

Student Question 6: What could keep
me from taking action?
Enable student to determine plan
of action to bridge gap between
self-evaluated currrent status and
self-identified goal status.
Teacher Obj ectiv es


Student Question 7: What can I do to
remove these barriers?


Collaborate with student to
identify most appopriate
instructional strategies.
T each student needed studentdirected learning strategies.
Support student to implement
student-directed learning
strategies.
Provide mutually agreed upon
teacher-directed instruction.
Teacher Obj ectiv es

Student Question 8: When w ill I take
action?


Go to Phase 3
Enable student to determine
schedule for action plan.
Enable student to implement
action plan.
Enable student to self-monitor
progress.
Phas e 3: Adjus t Goal or Plan
Student Problem to Solv e: What hav e I
learned?
Educational Supports








Self-evaluation strategies.
Choice-making instruction.
Goal-setting instruction.
Problem-solving instruction.
Decision-making instruction.
Self-reinforcement strategies.
Self-recording strategies.
Self-monitoring.
Teacher Obj ectiv es
Student Question 9: What actions
have I taken?

Enable student to self-evaluate
progress toward goal
achievement.
Teacher Obj ectiv es
Student Question10: What barriers
have been removed?

Collaborate with student to
compare progress with desired
outcomes.
Teacher Obj ectiv es


Student Question 11: What has
changed about w hat I don't know ?


Support student to re-evaluate
goal if progress is insufficient.
Assist student to decide if goal
remains the same or changes.
Collaborate with student to
identify if action plan is adequate
or inadequate given revised or
retained goal.
Assist student to chagne action
plan if necessary.
Teacher Obj ectiv es
Student Question 12: Do I know w hat
I w ant to know ?

Enable student to decide if
progress is adequate, inadequate,
or if goal has been achieved.
Advantages of Model



Valid means of teaching students educationally
relevant goals.
Promotes student self-determination, problemsolving, goal setting skills.
Enhanced motivation


Fisher and colleagues findings that the act of choosing is,
in and of itself, reinforcing.
Sailor and colleagues ‘hypothesis of functional
competence’ suggests that motivation factor implicit in the
mere act of ‘causing something to happen.’
Efficacy of Interventions to Promote
Self-Determination

Data exists to support the efficacy of the following
interventions/programs:

Steps to Self-Determination (Hoffman & Field, 1995)


TAKE CHARGE for the Future


Published by ProEd (http://www.proedinc.com)
Contact Dr. Laurie Powers at the University of Portland
Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction
(Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000)

Beach Center web site (http://www.beachcenter.org)
Efficacy of Efforts to Promote
Student Involvement

Data exists to support the efficacy of the
following interventions/programs:

Next S.T.E.P. (Halpern, et al., 1997)


Published by ProEd (http://www.proedinc.com)
Self-Directed IEP (Martin, Huber Marshall,
Maxon, & Jerman, 1997)


Published by Sopris West
(http://www.sopriswest.com/)
Information on Zarrow Center at OU website
(http://education.ou.edu/zarrow/).
Efficacy of Efforts to Promote
Student Involvement (cont.)

Data exists to support the efficacy of the
following interventions/programs:

Self-Advocacy Strategy (VanReusen et al., 2002).


Contact University of Kansas Center for Research on
Learning (http://www.ku-crl.org/).
Whose Future is it Anyway? (Wehmeyer et al.,
2005).

Available online at OU Zarrow Center
(http://education.ou.edu/zarrow/).
Measuring Self-Determination

The Arc’s Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer et al)


AIR Self-Determination Assessment (Mithaug et al)


Curriculum referenced measure.
Wayne State University Self-Determination Assessment
Battery (Field et al.)


Student, teacher, and parent report versions
ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Assessment (Martin et al)


Self-report measure of self-determination for students with cognitive
disabilities.
Student, parent, teacher versions, observation checklist
All available online at OU Zarrow Center web site
(http://education.ou.edu/zarrow/).
Resources: Websites

UNCC Self-Determination/Self-Advocacy
Synthesis Project site


OU Zarrow Center website


http://www.uncc.edu/SDSP/
http://education.ou.edu/zarrow/
KU Beach Center on Disability website

http://www.beachcenter.org/
Resources: Books



Teaching Student-Directed Learning (Agran
et al. 2003), Paul H. Brookes
(http://www.pbrookes.com)
Promoting Self-Determination in Students
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