EFL/ESL Teaching Research
教学科研与论文写作-1
张莲
北京外国语大学 英语学院
Tuesday, Nov. 15th, 2011
Agenda
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What kind of research shall we talk
about today?
Classroom-based research (CBR)
Case study research
Action Research
A case study
Practicum: Planning a research
project of your own
What is research?
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The search for knowledge
What kind of research, then?
Basic research?
Applied research?
Medical research?
Environmental research?
Educational research?
Linguistic research?
…?
Quantitative?
Qualitative?
Mixed?
…?
Classroom-Based
Research
Is it scientific?
Can it be scientific?
What is classroom-based
research (CBR)?
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A broad umbrella-term
“Any empirical investigations that
use the classroom (i.e., EFL/ESL
classroom) as the main research
site…that examines how teaching
and learning takes place in context.”
(Dörnyei, 2007, p. 176)
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Mackey & Gass (2005, Second Language Research: Methodology and Design);
Dörnyei (2007, Research Methods in Applied Linguistics);
Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007, Research Methods in Education, 6th ed.)
Why CBR?
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Classroom is “the first proper place to look for
insights and understanding about language pedagogy”
(Allright 1983, p.191);
The systematic, intellectual inquiry by classroom
teachers into the nature of teaching and learning in
their classroom for the purpose of improving
instruction（Cross & Angelo, 1993；Cross & Steadman, 1996);
“Classroom is a primary research site in applied
linguistic investigations and the unique features of
this context have a strong bearing on the way we can
conduct research in it” (Dornyei, 2007, p. 176)
zhanglian@bfsu.edu.cn
Modes of Classroom Research
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心理实验研究 (psychometric studies )
互动分析 (interaction analysis)
话语分析 (discourse analysis)
人种志分析 (ethnographic analysis)
（Chaudron,1988）
根据研究方法，特
别是研究设计、数据
收集方式的异同
zhanglian@bfsu.edu.cn
EFL/ESL classroom
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目
的：了解可能促进或阻碍语言习得
的因素（教育变量）；
理论框架：二语习得的框架；
终极目标：描写并预测学习者习得目标语
所经过的阶段，增进对语言习得过程的理
解,从而优化课堂教学。
Focus of
EFL Classroom Research
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根据课堂的要素
/研究所关注的
2003; Johnson 2009; Zhang 2004, 2005， 2011; Wu 2008;)
焦点来划分课堂
课堂教学的结构与模式(Sinclair & Coulthard
1975; McCarthy 1991; Cazden 2001;
Francis 2005; Lahlali 2007)
研究的类型
教材 (Cunningsworth 1984,1991; Ellis 1997;Ma 2007)
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以上几个关注点间的互动关系等
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……
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目标语 (Krashen 1987, 1988; Lewis 1993, 1997)
学生 (Ellis & Barkhuizen 2005; Gao et al 2003; Cohen 1998; Wen &
Wang 2001)
教师
(Schön 1983; Calderhead 1984; Shulman 1987; Tsui, 2003; Borg
（Gaies 1983; Allright 1983，Ellis 1985; Wen 1996；zhang 2004, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978;
Bernstein 1991; Cazden 2001; Francis 2005; Lahlali 2007 ）
研究范式
Mixed
method
research
(Research paradigms)
 量化研究 ( quantitative paradigm)
 质化研究 ( qualitative paradigm)
 批判理论 (Critical Theory, e.g., CDA)
 后现代主义（Post-modernism）
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“范式/paradigm”：一定历史时期被普遍接受
的一种广义的模型、框架、思维方式或是一种
理解现实的体系（Cohen, Manion & Morrison,
2007）。
量化研究 v.s 质化研究
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实验法
相关性研究
调查法
数学模型
……
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人种志研究
个案研究
叙事研究
行动研究
……
Mixed method research!
影响选择研究方法的主要因素
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世界观（方法论）
意识形态、政治、经济、文化的需求
研究理想与现实的矛盾
研究者个人经历
Case study research
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定义／definition
个案研究类型(types)
介入模式(modes of research): 调查、观察、参与和访问;
研究工具: 问卷(questionnaire)
观察(observation)/实录
访问(interview)
文件评估(documentation review)
实物收集（collection of physical artifacts）
研究步骤（steps）
原则(Tenets): 描写(describing)
理解(understanding)
解释(explaining)
Defining case study research
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…an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its
real-life context; when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are
not clearly evident; and in which multiple
sources of evidence are used. (Yin,
1994/2002, p. 23)
Why case study research?
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教学研究的核心是“理解并关注课堂事件”
（Tsui 2003, p. 32）；
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课堂是教师和学生的“现实生活（reallife）”(ibid)：复杂性和混沌性；始终处于流动、
变化的状态 (Zhang 2011);
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质化研究的优势在于它对 “现实生活的有力把握”
和对复杂、变化的问题的理解和解释（Miles &
Huberman1994, p.10） 。
Types of Case Study Research-1
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探索性（exploratory）
描写性（descriptive）
解释性（explanatory）
(Stenhouse, 1985; Merriam, 1988; Yin,
1994; Stake, 1994; Sturman, 1999; Duff,
2008)
Types of Case Study Research-2
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单例个案研究( single-case study )
多例个案研究(multiple-case study)
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(Miles & Huberman, 1994)
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Main steps in case study research
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确立/定义研究问题；
选择个案并确定收集和分析数据的方法；
准备收集数据；
进入现场并开始收集数据；
评估与分析数据；
撰写个案研究报告
(Simons 1980; Yin 1994/2002; Stake 1994, 1995;
Cohen et al 2007; Duff 2008）
Where do questions come from?
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研究者个人研究经历
文献评析／交流
对现实的批判、质疑和反思
Methods of data collection
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问卷/questionnaire
课堂实况录象/video-taped lessons
访问/interviews
标注系统/coding scheme:
IRF (Sinclair & Coulthard 1975);
FIAC (Flanders 1970)
SETT (Walsh 2006)
thematic analysis (Linde, 1980);
Singapore Pedagogy Coding Scheme (2002-2007)
软件/software：ELAN
CLASS 4.0 (Nystrand, 1999/2004)
AnnoTool (机助定性研究语料标注)
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文献与理论分析
Illustration of IRF pattern
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T: What’s this?
Initiation
Ss: It’s…er…it’s bananas…
it’s banana.
Response
T: Great. It’s a banana.
Feedback/
evaluation
Illustration of FIAC:互动分析系统
类别
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
总量
1
5
0
3
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
12
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
5
0
10
3
0
1
55
16
24
3
0
1
5
0
105
4
3
0
11
81
147
19
0
12
3
11
287
5
0
0
1
157
819
31
0
4
3
6
1021
6
0
0
1
16
25
46
0
8
0
4
100
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
3
4
21
8
1
0
0
63
2
2
104
9
0
5
12
1
0
0
0
0
27
1
46
10
1
0
1
6
2
1
0
12
1
11
35
总量
12
10
105
287
1021
100
0
104
46
35
1720
%
89%
教师话语
9%
学生
2%
其它
100%
Illustration of ELAN
References
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Hamel, J. (with Dufour, S., & Fortin, D.). (1993). Case
Study Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative
Data Analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (1980). Qualitative Evaluation Methods.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Yin, R. K. (1984/2002). Case Study Research: Design
and Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
zhanglian@bfsu.edu.cn
Major criticisms
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无法提供信度和推广度的基础，其研究结果只
有“显微”（microscopic）的效能；
研究者过度接触案例可能会导致结果偏差；
“研究者潜在的主观性”会影响研究者对案例
的感知;
因此，有用，但只能用做探索的工具.
zhanglian@bfsu.edu.cn
Yin’s responses to the criticisms
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Small qualitative studies are not generalizable in the
traditional sense, yet have redeeming qualities that
set them above that requirement, in that
generalization of results, from either single or
multiple designs, is made to theory and not to
populations；
Such singularity is characterized as a concentration
of the global in the local;
因此，个案研究相对较小的样本并不会把个案转化为
“显微”的研究；即使是单一个案也是可以接受的，
只要它满足了研究目的；
（Hamel et al. 1993; Yin 1994/2002; Miles & Huberman 1984)
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case study
Q-A, Interaction & Classroom Discourse
What is Action Research???
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“simply a form of self-reflective
inquiry undertaken by participants in
order to improve the rationality and
justice of their own practice, their
understanding of those practices and the
situations in which the practices are
carried out” (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 162)
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AR “is conducted by or in cooperation
with teachers for the purpose of
gaining a better understanding of
their educational environment and
improving the effectiveness of their
teaching” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 191)
Or, “a systematic, iterative process of
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(1) identifying an issue, problem, or puzzle we
wish to investigate in our own context;
(2) thinking and planning an appropriate action
to address that concern;
(3) carrying out the action;
(4) observing the apparent outcomes of the
action;
(5) reflecting on the outcomes and on other
possibilities; and
(6) repeating these steps again” (Nunan & Bailey,
2009, p. 227)
To summarize, by nature,
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Problem-driven
Practitioner/teacher-oriented
Situational, i.e., classroom-based
For the purpose of improving and
change
collaborative
Cyclical/iterative
What AR is NOT (cf. pp. 229-230)
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Not the usual thing teachers do, i.e.,
thinking about their teaching
Not just problem-solving
Not research on OTHER people
Not the “scientific” method
Steps in action research
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Step 1: problem identification
Step 2: Preliminary investigation
Step 3: Hypothesis formation
Step 4: Plan intervention
Step 5: Take action and observe
outcomes
Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes
Steps in case study research
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确立/定义研究问题；
选择个案并确定收集和分析数据的方法；
准备收集数据；
进入现场并开始收集数据；
评估与分析数据；
撰写个案研究报告
(Simons 1980; Yin 1994/2002; Stake 1994, 1995;
Cohen et al, 2007）
Steps in action research
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Step 1: problem identification
Step 2: Preliminary investigation
Step 3: Hypothesis formation
Step 4: Plan intervention
Step 5: Take action and observe
outcomes
Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes
How is action research different
from case study research?
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Whose problem?
Who is the researcher?
Who benefits from the research?
Action as research; research as
action
Cycles of AR (van Lier, 1994)
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Cf. pp. 230
Step 1: problem identification
Step 2: Preliminary investigation
Step 3: Hypothesis formation
Cycle I
Step 4: Plan intervention
Step 5: Take action and observe outcomes
Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes
Step 7: Identifying follow-up issue/problem
Step 8: Second hypothesis
Cycle II
Step 9: Take action and observe outcomes
Step 10: Reflect on outcomes
…
Cycle III
Problem identification
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Poor attendance/concentration in class
Lack of parental involvement
Writing skills that do not meet grade-level
expectations
Reading comprehension skills that
prevent a student or a group of students
from passing tests
Bullying or aggressive behavior on
playground
Are they really the problems?
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How do you know this is a problem?
What evidence do you have that this
is a problem worth investigating?
Formulate researchable questions
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Narrow, specific and researchable
Answerable with “treatment” or
“intervention” or “instructional
strategy” within a predetermined
period
Case analysis and discussion
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What problems/puzzles/challenges
do you have in your teaching and
learning? Can you name just a
few????
行动研究问题 (cf. Handouts-AR )
AR-1-2-3-4-5
Design and data collection
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Outline the research:
What is the problem? How can I investigate into
it and resolve it through cycles of action
research?
Time schedule: when, where and with/upon
whom?
Methods: questionnaire, interview, observation,
test scores, journal entries ??
Quality control: triangulation (cf. p. 234)
Planning your own AR research
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Think of your own teaching practice and situation and
see if you have any problem, puzzle, issue to resolve.
In groups of four~6, work out a research plan for your
AR. The plan should include:
The problem you identify
The preliminary investigation
The hypothesis
The action you’re going to take
The expected outcomes
Challenges and problems in AR
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Lack of time
Lack of expertise
Lack of ongoing support
Fear of being revealed as an incompetent
teacher
Fear of producing a public account of their
research for wider audience
Are these all the challenges for you too?
Cf. 行动研究为什么搁浅了？
Allwright once commented,
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“The classroom-based SLA research
project was clearly taking up far too much
staff time to be worth pursuing, and it
was also requiring staff to learn research
skills that were not likely to be helpful in
their lives as teachers. So it was heavily
parasitic upon their normal working lives,
rather than supportive of them…”
(Allwright, 2005, p. 354, one of the original
promoters of AR)
Any possible solutions?
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Can you think of any possible
solutions?
Cf. Niu Ruixue