Language
Considerations in
Curriculum &
Instruction in Malawi
Andrea Sterzuk, October 2, 2013
Macro
Micro
If we want to understand English vocabulary development in a
Math classroom in Malawi, we need to place it socially, historically
and politically.
European imperialism; settler colonialism;
official language policy; globalization…
Where is the school located? Who is
learning? Who is teaching? Which
languages are spoken by the teacher
and learners? Which languages are not?
Questions – History of English in
Malawi
 What do you know of the history of
English in Malawi (Zambia)?
 Has your family shared stories of
grandparents and great grandparents
learning English at school? Through
commerce or trade? Through church?
 Are there other languages in your
family’s past & present besides English
and Chichewa?
English in Malawi
 Matiki (2001) explains that the history
of English in Malawi is tied to three
things:
the presence of British colonial
administration
2. missionary educators
3. the Shire Highlands planters.
1.
English in Malawi

British interest in the area that is presentday Malawi began in 1858 with visits by
David Livingstone. This encouraged
missionary activity starting in the 1860s
followed by a small group of settlers. The
British Central Africa Protectorate (BCA)
was proclaimed in 1891 (Wikipedia).

In 1907, Britain appropriated Malawi, then
called Nyasaland. The 1911 census of
Nyasaland indicates that the population
was: Africans 969,183, Europeans 766 and
Asians 481 (Wikipedia).

English became the official language used
by the colonialists.
English in Malawi

Matiki (2001) indicates that Chichewa and
other African languages were used with &
among the African population. English was
used for administration, education, and
commerce. Christianity “further
entrenched the position of English vis-àvis local languages” (p. 202).

An English-Chichewa colonial language
policy was developed. English was used for
administration, commerce and in the
higher levels of schooling. Chichewa was
used in lower levels of primary school.
Languages in Malawi
 The last population census with questions on linguistic
patterns took place in 1966. Matiki states that “the
census revealed that Malawi had more than fourteen
Bantu languages” (2001, p. 203).
 “The majority first languages were identified as Chichewa
(50.2%); Chilomwe (14.5%); Chiyao (13.8%); Chitumbuka
(9.1%). Other languages had less than 4%” (2001, p.203).
 Chichewa was the most understood language (76.6%)”
(2001, p.203).
Languages in Malawi
 Matiki (2001) also explains that the 1966 census showed
that:

“only 0.006% used English as a home language while 4.9%
understood it.”
 22.5% understood only an indigenous language other than
Chichewa
 0.9% understood English and another language but not
Chichewa.
Languages in Malawi

In 1968, Malawi declared Chichewa and
English as official languages. Matiki (2001)
states that “the idea was that both
languages would have roles in all official
domains of national life such as in
government and administration, the judicial
system and the legislature” (p. 201).

Matiki explains that subsequent
implementations of the policy have “heavily
favoured English over Chichewa and the
other indigenous languages” (2001, p. 201).
Languages in Malawi
Official text from the language resolution
states:
a) “Malawi adopt Chinyanja as a national
language.
b) The name Chinyanga henceforth be known
as Chichewa.
c) Chichewa and English be the official
languages of the state of Malawi and all
other languages should continue to be used
in everyday private life in their respective
areas (Matiki, 2001, p.204).
Official Languages – Pierre Bourdieu

“[t]he official language is bound up
with the state, both in its genesis and
in its social uses. It is in the process of
state formation that the conditions
are created for the constitution of a
unified linguistic market, dominated
by the official language.

Obligatory on official occasion and in
official places (schools, public
administrations, political institutions,
etc.), this state language becomes
the theoretical norm against which
all linguistic practices are objectively
measured” (Bourdieu, p. 45, 1991).
Which languages are legitimate?
 Official languages are languages which are linked to societal
institutions; they have prestige and provide access to
systems like employment, housing, healthcare, and the
judicial system.
 Some languages provide more access than others because
they are the state or official languages of the nation-state;
these languages are legitimate.
 Some minority languages have little legitimacy and,
therefore, provide much less cultural and linguistic capital to
their speakers. Speakers of these languages have to work
harder to have access to official places.
Languages in Malawi

No official justification for adopting the policy
was given. Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda gave
statements indicating that “Chichewa was
chosen as a national language because it was the
most widely spoken language and, more
importantly, that it had the power to unite all
the people in Malawi” (Matiki, 2001, p. 204).

The establishment of state-mandated or
national languages is an inherently political act
and one that clearly advantages some
individuals and groups at the expense of others.
This idea of national languages resulting in
national unity was not uncommon at the time.
Events of the 1960’s in Canada
 The tense relationship between
English and French Canada &
growing unrest among French
Canadians lead to the establishment
of the Royal Commission on
Bilingualism and Biculturalism from
1963 to 1969.
 This enquiry revealed that
Francophones didn’t have the
economical and political
opportunities that their numbers
warranted.
Events of the 1960’s in Canada
 The main outcome of the
Royal Commission was the
Official Languages Act of 1969
which made French and
English Canada’s official
languages.
 Programs supported by this
act included minority and
second language-learning
opportunities country-wide
(and bilingual food labels, bien
sûr!)
Minority Languages in Malawi

Matiki (2001) explains that since 1994,
“Malawians have questioned the
legitimacy of Chichewa as the national
language and also as the only indigenous
language in schools” (p. 204).

“The government has also decided to
introduce other indigenous languages into
the primary school curriculum. Given that
the role of these languages in the new
political dispensation has not been spelled
out, these changes are basically meant for
political gains rather than the
government’s recognition of
ethnolinguistic diversity” (p.205).
Questions: Bilingualism in
Postcolonial Contexts

How do you balance bilingualism in your life?
When do you use Chichewa? English? Other
languages? With whom? For what purposes?

Do you have friends or family with whom you
mix languages?

Do you write in Chichewa? In English only?

Do you use social media in Chichewa? In
English?

In your teaching, do you use English and
Chichewa? English only? When do you use
Chichewa? For what purposes? What
languages do your students use?
Linguistic Hegemony & Schools
 “Kindergarten teachers in Malawi
routinely conduct their classes in English.
While the role of these special schools is
to encourage young children to develop
their skills and social behaviour before
entering primary school, in Malawi
kindergartens are used primarily to give
children a head start in English” (Matiki,
2001, p. 206).
Linguistic Hegemony & Schools
 Matiki (2001) states that “Chichewa is unquestionably
subservient to English; it is mainly used to aid the learning of
English” (p. 206).
 “Among all the school subjects, English has more class
periods per week than any other subject” (2001, p. 206).
 The University of Malawi maintains English as the sole
language of classroom instruction
Linguistic Hegemony & Schools
 In all three national exams, “English is the passing subject.
Not only are students expected to pass a certain number of
school subjects, but English must be one of the subjects
passed to qualify for a certificate and advance to the next
level of education.”
 “That is, if a student excels in all other subjects but fails his
English paper, she or he is considered to have failed and
cannot get a certificate, let alone advance to the next level of
education” (Matiki, 2001, p. 206).
Linguistic Hegemony & Schools
 Colonial educational language policy is “probably the major
linguistic broker for the hegemony of English over Chichewa
and other indigenous languages. It is not surprising,
therefore, that Malawians have come to view English as a
socially and economically more viable language than
Chichewa. (2001, p. 207).
 “Speaking English is equated with being educated. The use of
English as a measure of intelligence forms the basis for
similar use in other spheres of life, such as in employment”
(2001, p. 207).
Minority Languages in Malawi
 Fait accompli? “We may well regret the past, but
there is nothing we can now do about it, so it
should not, nor can it, usefully inform our present.
What is done is done.
 The problem with this position, however, is that
it attenuates, and in most instances forecloses,
the possibility of considering alternative
conceptions of rethinking the nation-state in
more culturally and linguistically plural ways,
not least via the application of language rights for
minority language speakers” (May, 2005, p. 325).
Minority Languages in Malawi
 “It also understates, and often overlooks, the
many counter-examples evident, not only
historically, but also contemporaneously, where
MLR have been considered, and in some cases
successfully implemented.
 Such examples vary widely. The most obvious
are those that are based on territorial language
principles instantiating minority languages in
the public domain, alongside a majority
language in particular territories; Quebec, Wales,
Belgium, Catalonia, Switzerland are obvious
examples here” (May, 2005, p. 325).
A counter-example: Nunavut
In May 2013, the Nunavut Official
Languages Act was introduced. This means
the Inuit language will be given equal status
to English and French, as official languages
in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Begin
by reading the article. After, discuss the
following questions in your groups:
1.
How will the Languages Act affect schools in
Nunavut?
2.
Are there parallels or differences between
Nunavut and Malawi?
3.
In your opinion, how do the current
positions of English, Chichewa and other
indigenous languages in Malawian schools
serve the needs of Malawian students?