How does the acquisition of skill
affect performance?
•Stages of skill acquisition
•Characteristics of the learner
•The learning environment
•Assessment of skill and performance
Stages of Skill Acquisition
The Cognitive Stage
• This stage is identified as the basic or understanding stage of
skill learning.
• It focuses on what to do.
• Learners at this stage will experience frequent large errors.
• The learner is often unable to recognise errors.
• The learner needs to see, feel and experience the movement.
• Demonstration is the best means of communication.
• Learners must identify sub-routines.
• The learner will often exhibit a slow learning speed and
inefficient movement.
• Learning is supported with the use of teaching aids e.g.
Demonstrations, pictures, videos, etc.
Stages of Skill Acquisition
The Associative Stage
• This stage is identified as the intermediate or practice stage of
skill learning.
• It focuses on how to do the skill.
• Some errors are made but not so large.
• The learner is able to recognise errors.
• The learner needs to practice to kinaesthetically develop at
this stage.
• Emphasis is on temporal patterning. The player will know the
sub-routines and is competent in assembling them into the
required skill.
• The learner will often exhibit moderate speed and reasonable
efficient movement.
• Further improvement requires practice of set patterns of
movements in controlled situations.
Stages of Skill Acquisition
The Autonomous Stage
• This stage is identified as the advanced stage at which skills are
performed reflexively.
• Learners at this stage have the ability to focus on other tasks.
• Very few errors are made at this stage.
• The performer is able to detect and correct errors as they occur.
• The performer is able to adapt movements to pressure situations.
• Movements can be rehearsed under varying conditions.
• Demonstrations are only essential to refine particular movements.
• Temporal and sequential patterning of sub-routines is automatic at
this stage.
• The performer exhibits speed and efficiency that relate to the
specific requirements of the situation.
• Improvement at this stage requires the manipulation of the
environment to ensure the skill is able to be reproduced under
varying conditions.
Stages of Skill Acquisition
Media Resources
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8QZzvhkIyQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMa0XpI3Rl0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWuXyFU5EQs
Characteristics of the Learner
Personality
• Many athletes that are successful have not only
physical talent but also positive personality traits.
These traits include determination, desire to
succeed, motivation, cooperation, optimism and
enthusiasm. These personality traits coupled with
physical talent enhance the learning of new skills.
• Learners who’s personality reflects positive ways of
behaving are more receptive to instruction and
advice, more cooperative in performing set tasks
and more helpful in creating a productive learning
environment.
Characteristics of the Learner
Heredity
• Hereditary factors are characteristics inherited from parents.
These factors cannot be changed and help to determine how
quickly (or slowly) a new skill is learnt. Hereditary factors
include:
- the percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres (fast
twitch fibres are naturally suited to sprint and explosive
events, slow twitch are more suited to endurance.
- somatotype (mesomorphy, endomorphy and ectomorphy.
- gender
- Height
- Conceptual ability (the ability to visualise movement and
make it materialise .
• Heredity factors determine the ‘ceiling’ for performance
potential.
Characteristics of the Learner
Confidence
• Confidence in learning a skill leads to successful
skill development. Consistent failure may affect the
confidence of a learner. Therefore, the coach needs
to offer positive feedback so that confidence remains
high.
• Confidence unlocks energy and creativity. Confident
people are able to help others as well as themselves.
• Confident people approach new skill learning
situations with feelings of being able to rise to the
challenge and that the outcome will be favourable
regardless of the outcome.
Characteristics of the Learner
Prior Experience
• If the learner has already learnt a similar skill this
knowledge can be transferred to the new skill being
learnt. This is known as transfer of learning and it
increases the rate of skill development.
• Lateral transfer – skill transfer from one similar task
to another e.g. Backhand in squash to a backhand in
tennis.
• Vertical transfer – the act of mastering a lower order
task as a prerequisite for something much more
difficult e.g. Learning a butterfly kick using a
kickboard before progressing to butterfly swimming.
Characteristics of the Learner
Ability
• Ability is the ease at which a learner develops
new skills. It takes into account a number of
factors such as the intelligence of the learner,
their thought processes and problem solving
skills, reaction time and perception.
The Learning Environment
The learning environment refers to everything outside the
learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in
which it is practiced, information from coaches and even
the influence of the surrounding weather conditions.
The Nature of Skill
All skills have observable characteristics, so can be
grouped according to specific criteria. Skills are
commonly classified as open or closed; gross motor or
fine motor; discrete, serial or continuous; self-paced or
externally paced. Most skills fit a number of
classifications.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Open Skills:
• Occur in an environment that is unpredictable and
frequently changing. Athletes are required to modify
their techniques to adapt to the instability of the
surrounding environment. E.g. Surfing is an open skill
due to the unpredictability of the environment.
Closed Skills:
• Occur in an environment that is stable and predictable.
This is much more conducive to learning for
inexperienced individuals as there are no external
distractions. E.g. Ten pin bowling is a closed skill.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Gross Motor Skills:
• Require the use of large muscle groups for
execution. E.g. Running, leaping, vaulting, tackling
and surfing.
Fine Motor Skills:
• Require the use of only small muscle groups to
perform the movement. E.g. Typing, tying shoelaces
and writing. Isolated movements in sport such as
catching in cricket, playing darts and putting in golf.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Discrete Skills:
• Have a distinctive beginning and end that can be
identified. E.g. A forward roll in gymnastics.
Serial Skills:
• Involve a sequence of smaller movements that
are assembled to make a total skill. E.g. A place
kick in football – placing the ball, moving back,
moving forward, kicking the ball and following
through.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Continuous Skills:
• Have no distinct beginning or end. They appear
repetitive and ongoing. E.g. Swimming, running,
rowing, skiing and rock climbing. The length of
these activities is unspecified, however, they do
have a beginning and an end at some stage and
due to this they can be categorised on a
continuum ranging from discrete to continuous.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Self-paced Skills:
• Are movements for which the performer
determines the timing and speed of execution.
E.g. A tennis serve and kicking a football
(soccer) in practice.
Externally Paced Skills:
• Are movements for which an external source
controls the timing. E.g. Dancing, rhythmic
gymnastics and returning a serve in tennis.
The Learning Environment
The Nature of Skill
Media Resources:
Tennis as an open skill Part 1
Tennis as an open skill part 2
Tennis as an open skill part 3
Tennis as an open skill part 4
The Learning Environment
The Performance Elements
The performance elements, namely decision making, strategic
development and tactical development, are often overshadowed by a
focus on teaching and developing skill fundamentals.
We sometimes see players demonstrate proficiency in practice
sessions, but they are unable to respond successfully to opponents
in games because they lack the knowledge, confidence and decision
making skills necessary to take advantage of the situation.
The ability to ‘read’ a game and make strategic and tactical decisions
can be developed through a game centred approach. This
approach aims to focus on the whole game and all the components,
rather than a sequence of basic skills assembled within a game
format. The emphasis is on integrating thinking and learning rather
than skill development in isolation.
The Learning Environment
The Performance Elements
Decision Making:
• Decision making is best improved by having to make decisions in
performance like situations.
• Productive decision making is best achieved through:
- Observation through the use of coaching boards and
demonstrations of strategies.
- Questioning. Highlight strategic options by asking athletes
questions as to what may happen to players in specific play options.
- Whole, part, whole approach. A game strategy needs to be taught
as a whole so players can see the overall plan. Then individuals can
learn their individual part/role to achieve the overall plan.
- Variation. Explore different variations of strategies in training.
- Creativity. Encourage all players to identify with each problematic
situation and solve it as a group.
The Learning Environment
The Performance Elements
Strategic and Tactical Development:
• Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at a
particular time and what to do.
• Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an
opponent. E.g. Using a cut-out pass in league or double playing an
opponent in basketball.
• Strategic and tactical development is built on the following principles:
- Technical efficiency. Players using correct technique in the execution of
skills.
- Understanding. Players need to fully understand what is required, options
and variations possible and what to do if things should go wrong.
- Skilful Execution. Skills need to be executed in replicated game situations.
This is best achieved through invasive and part invasive game play drills
that encourage players to make decisions and create options.
The Learning Environment
Practice Methods
Massed Practice:
• Involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals
being shorter than the practice intervals.
• Massed practice works best when performers are highly
motivated, fresh and unable to attend a number of sessions.
Distributed Practice:
• Involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or
alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals.
• Distributed practice works best when the performer lacks
interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low, the task causes
fatigue and excessive work causes discomfort.
The Learning Environment
Practice Methods
Whole Practice Method:
• This method is applied when a skill is practiced in its
entirety.
• It is used for skills that are relatively easy to learn or
when it is difficult for learners to conceptualise and
integrate the smaller parts that need to be assembled to
form a complex skill e.g. A somersault or handstand.
Part Practice Method:
• This method is applied when a skill can be broken into
smaller components and each discrete sub-skill
(subroutine) is practices separately.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Feedback plays an important role in the learning process because it provides
guidance and helps the performer eradicate movement error.
Feedback can be defined as the information provided to the learner about the
nature or result of their performance.
The many types of feedback include: internal, external, concurrent, delayed,
knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.
The relationship between feedback and performance is important.
• If the action is highly unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the
learner substitute or replace the action.
• If the action is unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the learner
modify the action.
• If the action is successful, then feedback should suggest that the learner
repeat the action.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Internal Feedback:
• Occurs as a normal consequence of performing a
skill. It embodies feelings, together with sensory
information such as seeing the ball and hearing
the sound of a ball hitting the bat. This is known
as proprioception and it helps us to develop our
kinaesthetic sense or ‘feel’ for a movement and
eventually to differentiate between skilful
application and error.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
External Feedback:
• Is referred to all feedback other than that which
occurs as a normal consequence of performing a
skill. It includes various forms of external
information, such as suggestions from the coach,
video replays, judges’ scores and the race results.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Concurrent Feedback:
• Is feedback relayed through the body’s
proprioceptive mechanisms simultaneously with
skill execution.
• Example: The feedback that a person receives
while balancing in a head stand – information
from the brain that enables them to maintain
poise.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Delayed Feedback:
• Is referred to as feedback that is received at a
later stage after skill execution.
• Example: Waiting for the result of a basketball
throw. The feedback (a successful or
unsuccessful throw) is not received until the ball
either enters or misses the basket.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Knowledge of Results:
• Is information about the outcome of a
movement. It suggests how successfully the skill
was performed.
• Example: How many goals were scored from a
number of attempts, or what distance was
covered in a long jump.
• It is always external and comes from sources
such as coaches or other performers.
The Learning Environment
Feedback
Knowledge of Performance:
• Is information about the pattern of the movement
during execution. It is more specific to the way in
which the skill is performed.
• Example: a comment from a coach about the height
of the ball toss during a tennis serve, or the angle of
the elbow during the pull phase of butterfly
swimming.
• Knowledge of performance gives feedback on the
quality of the execution of the skill, it may generate
from internal or external sources.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
After having taught skills, assessment needs to be
made of the effectiveness of methods used in
terms of improvement in performance.
Each type of performance has a number of ways
by which it can be measured. It is important to
gather information about skill and performance
using accurate and well established techniques
to ensure true reflection of performance
achievement.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Characteristics of Skilled Performers
There is a marked difference between the
movements of a skilled performer and those of
an unskilled performer.
A skilled performer has certain observable
qualities: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation,
consistency and technique.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Characteristics of Skilled Performers
Kinaesthetic Sense:
• Refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in
the muscles and their attachments.
• Skilled performer’s kinaesthetic sense allows
them to ‘feel’ the movement as they perform it.
They are able to identify and correct mistakes
whilst moving.
• Inexperienced performers make mistakes
because their ‘muscle memory’ is not fully
developed.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Characteristics of Skilled Performers
Anticipation:
• Is the ability to predict the movement or direction of an object
and respond appropriately with timing.
• Skilled athletes can quickly and easily predict the movement
of an object. This skill allows them added time in which to
respond. A skilled performer can also vary the pace of a
movement to confuse their opponent and also provide more
opportunity to ensure the movement is performed smoothly
and with coordination.
• Unskilled performers have a lack of ability to predict the
movement or direction of an object and this can be identified
through delayed reactions to stimuli and an inability to
execute a required skill within the given time frame.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Characteristics of Skilled Performers
Consistency:
• Is the ability to execute a skill repeatedly with a
high degree of success.
• A skilled performer is able to perform the
desired movement repeatedly.
• An unskilled performer will exhibit errors during
the execution of a skill.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Characteristics of Skilled Performers
Technique:
• Is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular
task.
A skilled performer with good technique:
• Demonstrates movement that is economical, requiring less
energy than an unskilled performer.
• Demonstrates skilful movement, using only essential muscles.
• Displays movement that is aesthetically pleasing.
• Has an action that has a better chance of being successful.
• Has an action that has a better chance of holding up under
pressure.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Objective and Subjective Performance Measures
Objective measurement of skill occurs when the results of
a performance are not influenced by the personal
opinions of judges e.g. long jump.
Subjective measurement of skills occurs when the results
are influenced by the opinion of the judge e.g. evaluating
a boxing match. Many sports include judging or
refereeing, which have both subjective and objective
elements. To overcome criticism of favouritism, human
error or inconsistency, many sports try to minimise the
subjective nature of judging in their sport. Various
methods such as marking criteria, check lists, rating
scales, measurement systems and multiple judges are
used to increase objectivity.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Objective and Subjective Performance Measures
Personal versus Prescribed Judging Criteria:
• Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or
expectations than an individual brings to judge a
performance. E.g. A coach selecting a team for
the following week based on individuals
performance this week.
• Prescribed criteria are established by a sports
organisation or body and form the basis of
assessment for competitions in that sport or
activity.
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Validity and Reliability of Tests
Assessment of Skill and Performance
Personal versus Prescribed Judging Criteria
• Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or
expectations than an individual brings to judge a
performance. E.g. A coach selecting a team for
the following week based on individuals
performance this week.
• Prescribed criteria are established by a sports
organisation or body and form the basis of
assessment for competitions in that sport or
activity.