Japanese language education in
Australia: an overview of the
current environment
オーストラリアにおける日本語教育の
環境と現状
Robyn Spence-Brown
Monash University
Australian Education system
オーストラリアの教育制度
• Australia is a federation of 6 States and 2 Territories.
• School education
– controlled mainly by State Governments
– Federal Government funds provides extra funding and
programs
– New national curriculum (Australian Curriculum) in some
subject areas, but States decide how to implement
• 3 school systems: Government (66%), Independent
(14%), Catholic (20%)
• Universities
– Most are public universities
– Controlled and (partially) funded by Federal Government
The Australian School system
オーストラリアの学校制度
教育機関
小学校 Primary
高校（ハイ・スクール）
Secondary （セコンダリー）
（シニアセカンダリー）
大学、TAFE、専門学校
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レベル
K: Foundation/Prep
Year 1 （小学1年）
Year 2 （小学2年）
Year 3 （小学3年）
Year 4 （小学4年）
Year 5 （小学5年）
Year 6 （小学6年）
Year 7 （中学1年）
Year 8 （中学2年）
Year 9 （中学3年）
Year 10 （高校1年）
Year 11 （高校2年）
Year 12 （高校3年）
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Languages in Schools
初等、中等教育の外国語教育
• Foreign languages are taught in both primary and
secondary schools, but period varies across
states
• Less than 15% of students study a language in
final two years of high school
• Main languages taught (secondary):
Japanese, French, Italian, Indonesian, German, Chinese,
Spanish.
Languages at the tertiary level
高等教育の外国語教育
• Percentage of students studying a language is
low.
• Languages are usually located in the
Arts/Humanities faculty.
• However, language can be taken as an elective by
students from other Faculties.
• A Diploma in Languages is available to be taken
at the same time as the main degree in some
universities.
The history of JLE: Early years
日本語教育の歴史：初期
Japanese has been taught for
100 years
• 1906: Melbourne (Stotts
College)
• 1917 University of Sydney
• 1918 Fort St school in
Sydney
• Coincided with growth in
Japan’s strategic and
economic importance
– Trade with Japan (wool etc.)
– Strategic factors: Japan was a
threat but also an ally
– Missionaries
– Cultural interest
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World War II
第二次世界大戦
• 1941 Australia was at war with
Japan
• Military schools taught Japanese
for intelligence gathering etc
• Australians were part of the
occupation force in Japan, and
participated in War Crimes trials
• Some war-time language experts
became teachers in the post-war
period
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1960s A new beginning
新しい出発
• Japanese introduced/reintroduced into major
universities
• 1962 ANU
• 1965 University of
Queensland, Melbourne
University
• 1967 Monash University,
Curtin University (WAIT)
in WA
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1970s Japanese appears in schools
日本語が学校教育に取り入られる
• By 1976, Japanese
taught at 13 Universities
and 100 schools
• 1977- Alfonso textbooks
produced for teaching in
schools
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1980s-1990s The boom years
日本語ブーム
• 1987 National Policy on
Languages
• Language Japanese introduced
widely in primary schools in
1990s
• NALSAS funding 1994-2002
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2000-2010 統合と収縮
Consolidation and contraction
• At beginning of 21st century, Japanese
was the most widely taught language in
Australia
– studied by more than 10% of all school
students K-12 (2008)
– largest language at tertiary level
• Decreased by 16% at school level
between 2000 and 2008 – biggest
decrease in primary school
• Reasons:
– Institutional factors affecting all
languages
– Decreased government funding
– Japan’s economic problems
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Student numbers 学習者数
Year 年
Students studying Japanese
日本語の学習者数
1970 （初、中、高等教育）
2,745
1979/80 （初、中、高）
7,535
1990 （初、中、高）
62,023
2000 （初、中のみ）
419,488
(小284,058+中135,430)
2008 （初、中のみ）
351,579
(小224,831+中126,748)12
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Distribution by state (2008)
州別の学習者数
Japanese students
Number of students of Japanese
school
students
OverallTotal
number
of school
students,
by State/Territory
Tasmania
TAS
SA
SA
WA
WA
Queensland
QLD
Victoria
VIC
NSW
NSW
• Students of Japanese
0
100000
0
Number of Japanese students
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500000 1000000 1500000
Total students
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Recent trendｓ 最近の傾向
• Japan Foundation report for 2012 shows increase
since 2009
– 13.3% ↑ Primary
– 1.4% ↑ Secondary
– 1.3% ↑ Tertiary
• Increases in some states balance decreases in others
• Causes
– Extra funding (NLSSP) 2006-2012
– Many states expanding primary language ed in
preparation for introduction of Australian curriculum
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Year 12 student numbers
12年生の日本語学習者数
2000
1800
1600
1400
ACT
NSW
1200
SA
NT
1000
QLD
TAS
800
VIC
WA
600
400
200
0
2000
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2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
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2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
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Tertiary level 高等教育
• 2009: 27 universities offered Japanese (ASAA).
– On the basis of this survey and other data, there were
probably between 7000-8000 university students.
– Two popular programs hadiscontinued.
• Japan Foundation survey (included a wider range of
post-secondary institutions)
– 2009: 8,520 students in 35 institutions.
– 2012: 9,682 students
• Uneven patterns: big rises in some institutions, falls
in others
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Tertiary level 高等教育
• Many university students take Japanese as an
elective, and do not continue after first or second
year.
• Many students are overseas students (mainly
from Asia).
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Factors affecting JLE
日本語教育に影響がある要素
The activity of JLE
日本語教育・学習の活動
Teachers,
students,
policy makers…
Resources/
technology,
curriculum
GOALS
Activity of
JLE
Local/ global
environment
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Education
structures
Community、
learners and
teachers
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Global and local factors impacting JLE
日本語教育に影響する国内、国外要因
Globalisation,
rise of China,
growth in ICT
Australia-Japan
relationship
Cultural and
Institutional factors
in Australia
Language ed policy
Individual motivation
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Factors affecting JLE today
日本語教育に影響する要素
• Strategic, economic and cultural factors
– Japan, and its place in the world
– Australia’s relations with Japan and other countries
– The shrinking globe: globalisation, impact of ICT, opportunities
for travel
• Australian community views about language learning
– Perceptions of the role and importance of language learning
• Policy and institutions
– Language policy, curriculum
– Broader education policy
– Structure and organisation of schools, universities
• People
– Students
– Teachers
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Australia’s Relationship With
Japan 日豪関係
• Political/strategic
– Military threat
– Ally
• Economic
– Trade
– Tourism, investment
• Cultural
– Food, art, popular
culture etc
• Personal ties (business,
tourism, exchange)
http://nsnbc.me/2014/04/09/australia-japan-fta-finalised-long-gestation/
Strategic, economic factors
戦略的、経済的要因
• Strategic and economic factors were the basis of
past growth in JLE.
• They still dominate government language
education policy.
• These factors are also important for perceived
‘usefulness’ of Japanese for careers and student
and parent choices of language to study
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Strategic, economic factors
戦略的、経済的要因
Current situation
• ‘Japan as number 2’? Or 3?
– New free trade agreement shows that Japan-Australia relationship is
still strong.
– Japanese is viewed as a ‘successful’ language, but Chinese and
Indonesian have serious problems
BUT
– Growing importance of China, India, Indonesia in trade, tourism,
education etc.
→Funding and attention is focussed on Chinese and Indonesian
• Economic importance alone does not provide a strong enough
narrative for why JLE is still relevant and important.
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Cultural factors
文化的要素
Appeal of Japanese culture
• Appeal of traditional culture, food, art, martial
arts etc
• Influence of Japanese pop culture and image of
‘cool Japan’ – particularly important for Asian
background students: Asian identity
BUT
Negative factors also exist (e.g. whaling)
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Social connections
人間関係
Personal contacts
• Sister school and exchange programs are very
influential in supporting JLE
• Travel is a major motivation for students
• Evidence from recent research shows that ICT
makes continuation of networks easier nowadays
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The impact of changes in ICT on language teaching
ICTの普及による影響
Tools and resources
•
New channels for communication and access to information,
•
Resources to aid learning and understanding- both target and tools for learning
•
Communities
•
Access to new people and communities
•
New ways of communicating in existing communities
– Participants may be located anywhere
Geography no longer defines community
•
Nature of literacy is changing
– goals of learning and teaching must change
– Roles of students and teachers are also changing
‘We are no longer the arbiters of access to the culture and language we teach.’
Larson (2003)
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Factors affecting JLE today
日本語教育に影響する要素
• Strategic, economic and cultural factors
– Japan, and its place in the world
– Australia’s relations with Japan and other countries
– The shrinking globe: globalisation, impact of ICT, opportunities for travel
• Australian community views about
language learning
– Perceptions of the role and importance of language
learning
• Policy and institutions
– Language policy, curriculum
– Broader education policy
– Structure and organisation of schools, universities
• People
– Students
– Teachers
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Community factors: Australia’s ‘monolingual mindset’
コミュニティの要素：単一言語の考え方
• Scepticism about the value of foreign languages in a
world dominated by English
• Disappointment with outcomes of past programs
• Perceptions of a crowded curriculum
• Lack of support for languages as a key curriculum
component
• These issues feed directly into structural problems –
lack of ‘room’ for languages in Australian education
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The role of foreign language learning in Australian
society 外国語教育の意義、目的に関する問題
Dilemmas for English-speaking countries
• WHY teach language: How to justify learning
other languages in an English-speaking world?
– Practical communication value is not enough!
• WHICH language(s) to teach?
– Inward and outward looking views
– Education for a multicultural Australia: community
languages
– Education for a globalised world: international
languages
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Factors affecting JLE today
日本語教育に影響する要素
• Strategic, economic and cultural factors
– Japan, and its place in the world
– Australia’s relations with Japan and other countries
– The shrinking globe: globalisation, impact of ICT, opportunities for travel
• Australian community views about language learning
– Perceptions of the role and importance of language learning
• Policy and institutions
– Language policy, curriculum
– Broader education policy
– Structure and organisation of schools,
universities
• People
– Students
– Teachers
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The recent policy environment
近年の政策の環境
• 2007-2013 Rudd/Gillard
government supported
Asian languages
• NALSSP program (A$64
million over 3 years)
finished 2012
– NALSSP funding had a
recognisable impact on
numbers.
– No new major funding
initiatives have been
announced.
• White paper: Australia in
the Asian Century (2012)
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Australia in the Asian century White Paper
「アジアの世紀におけるオーストラリア」白書
• Sets out policies for Australia’s engagement with
the growing Asian region for the period until
2025
• Australia-Japan relationship is acknowledge as
very important, multi-dimensional and strong
• However main emphasis seems to have shifted
to China, India
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Policies on language education in the White Paper:
白書による言語教育政策
• Emphasised the importance of Asian language
competence AND Asia literacy
• Reaffirmed Japanese as one of 4 (later 5) Asian
languages to be taught in schools.
• Stated that all students should have the opportunity
to study sequentially
• Universities also to be assisted to promote study of
Asian languages and specialised skills
• Emphasis on role of technology (National broadband
network) and opportunities for interaction
• All schools to have a sister school in Asia
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Policies of the new government
新政権の政策
Positive rhetoric, but little funding (focus on
reducing budget deficit)
• Continued emphasis on Asian languages
• Continued focus on Asia literacy, study abroad,
technology
• Tony Abbott has reaffirmed goal of 40% of year
12 students to study language ‘within a decade’
– Currently around 11%
– Acknowledged as unlikely to be achieved
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Policies of the new government
新政権の政策
Funding
• Study abroad: $100 million “New Colombo Plan”
– scholarships and mobility grants to undergraduate
students for study and internships or mentorships in the
Asia-Pacific region.
• Early Learning Languages Australia (ELLA) with $9.8
million provided for a one-year trial of online foreign
language learning for children in preschool
programmes (40 schools)
• Focus on teacher supply, within wider programs
(teacher training review, ‘Teach for Australia’)
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Structural factors: Primary
構造的な問題：小学校
Basic problems:
• Primary education based on a generalist model
(classroom teacher covers whole curriculum)
→Teaching of specialist areas is a problem
(funding, staffing)
• Curriculum guidelines have been vague
• Textbooks not used
• Proficiency goals are unclear
• Future for students in high school unclear
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Structural factors: Primary
構造的な問題：小学校
As a result:
• Place in curriculum, time allocation, funding unclear
• Teachers focus on ‘fun’
• Employment conditions for teachers are bad
– Fixed-term, part-time positions
– Teachers are isolated – from support, and from influence
in the school
– No career path
• Evidence that some programs are of low quality,
have low expectations
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Structural factors: Transition issues
構造的な問題：小学校から高校への継続
• Primary students may not be able to continue
with Japanese in high school
• High school year 7 classes mix students who
studied in primary school and beginners
• Diversity of outcomes of primary programs
makes transition problems worse
• Lack of acknowledgement of prior learning at
secondary level leads to
– Primary teachers not having standards to aim for
– Boredom and frustration for students
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Structural factors: Secondary
構造的な問題：中等教育
•
•
•
•
Beginners and continuing students combined
Timetabling and time allocation
Unwillingness to support small classes
Year 12 issues
– Narrowing of subject choices at year 12 in some
states
– Scaling and fairness issues (real or perceived)
demotivate students
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Year 12 issues
12年生の問題
• Number of subjects studied at year 12 has decreased in
some states
– 5-6 in Queensland, Victoria
– 4-5 in South Australia and Northern Territory
• Increasingly competitive university entrance leads to
subject choices dominated by need to maximise marks
• Perception that Japanese is difficult, and requires more
work than other subjects to obtain a good mark
• Perceptions of unfairness of mark
– Problems with standardisation in some states
– Perception that presence of more advantaged students make
it hard to get a good mark
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Structural factors: Tertiary
構造的な要因：大学
Student numbers have grown in some universities,
decreased in others
Factors leading to decreases
• University funding cuts and rationalisation
– Full programs and individual subjects have been cut
Factors leading to increases
• University course restructure which supports
languages
– e.g. ‘Melbourne model’ at Melbourne University
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Structural factors – summary
構造的な要因：概括
• Structural factors are often not directly
associated with language teaching.
• However, general policies often make a more
significant impact on language learning than
‘language policies’.
• In a crowded curriculum, language study is not
given priority, or resources
• The fundamental problem is lack of ‘space’ and
resources for languages in Australian education
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Curriculum
カリキュラム、教授法
• Curriculum is controlled at state/territory level (8
different curriculums)
• Schools and individual teachers have considerable
freedom, within broad curriculum guidelines
• Primary schools:
– Curriculum and standards vary widely
– Cross-disciplinary learning is encouraged: potential for
content-based approaches (CLIL, Immersion)
• Secondary schools: Commonly used textbooks and year
12 exams provide curriculum structure
• Technology is increasingly available and influential
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The Australian Curriculum
全国統一カリキュラム
• First ‘national’ curriculum
– English, history, mathematics and science in process
of being implemented
– 14 languages to be developed, based on common
principles
– Italian, French, Chinese and Indonesian curriculum
released June 2014
• Unclear how states will implement
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Rationale for languages in the Australian curriculum
統一カリキュラム：言語教育の論拠、根拠
General education, intercultural understanding,
literacy
The study of languages contributes to the general
education of all students…. Learning to communicate
in two or more languages is a rich, challenging
experience of engaging with and participating in the
linguistic and cultural diversity of our interconnected
world. …
Language learning builds upon students intercultural
understanding and sense of identity…
Learning languages also develops students overall
literacy…transferrable across learning areas.
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Changing aims and objectives
言語教育の目標の変革
• Continuing demand for
– Communicative competence, linguistic skills, cultural
knowledge
• Growing focus on
– Intercultural knowledge, skills
– Language awareness, literacy (including online literacy)
– General educational skills and personal development
• ‘essential learning’: thinking, academic skills, technological skills,
interpersonal skills
• It is challenging to add new dimensions while still
covering the linguistic skills traditionally focused on.
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Content-based approaches
内容重視言語教育
• History of immersion education, particularly in
Victoria
• Recent developments:
– Robina High School – Queensland
– Primary immersion in NSW, Queensland
– Victoria: CLIL initiatives (Content and Language
Integrated Learning)
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Factors affecting JLE today
日本語教育に影響する要素
• Strategic, economic and cultural factors
– Japan, and its place in the world
– Australia’s relations with Japan and other countries
– The shrinking globe: globalisation, impact of ICT, opportunities for
travel
• Australian community views about language learning
– Perceptions of the role and importance of language learning
• Policy and institutions
– Language policy, curriculum
– Broader education policy
– Structure and organisation of schools, universities
• People
–Students
–Teachers
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Students: Increasing diversity
学習者の多様化
Students with diverse backgrounds study together
• Students who have studied Japanese at Primary
school and those who have not
• Students who have been to Japan, and those who
have not
• Students from kanji backgrounds and English
speaking backgrounds
• Students who are exposed to Japanese outside the
classroom and those who are not
Diversity provides both challenges and opportunities
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Students：motivation
学生のモチベーション
• Affective factors are more important than
instrumental factors
• Liking Japanese, interest in Japanese culture,
desire to travel to Japan are important
motivations at all levels
• Usefulness for employment is less important
factor at school level, more important at
University level
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Teachers of Japanese in schools
• Teacher supply issues – not just quantity, but
quality
• Teacher skills and qualifications
– Increasing skills levels (?)
– Increase in the number of NS teachers
• Language assistants
• Changes in the role of the teacher
• Problems in the position of the Japanese teacher
in the school, career paths, working conditions
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Challenges for policy and practice
政策と実践ににおける課題
Repositioning Japanese (goals and ‘branding’)
• Reaffirming the relevance of Japan to Australians
• Reaffirming why Japanese is an ideal foreign
language for Australians
• Emphasizing broader skills
– Japanese as a gateway to Asia
– Japanese as a passport to wider intercultural and
literacy skills
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Challenges for policy and practice
政策と実践ににおける課題
Reforming structural problems
• Making space in the curriculum for language
teaching in primary school, secondary school,
universities
• Providing adequate resources
• Solving fairness issues at senior secondary level
• Creative solutions to transition issues
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Challenges for policy and practice
政策と実践ににおける課題
Renewing goals, curriculum, teaching methods
• Making Japanese less ‘difficult’, but more ‘interesting’
• Integrating cultures, communities and intercultural skills
• Agreeing on goals and approaches for the primary years
• Catering for individual difference
– Differences in background, objectives
• Communication and learning skills for an ICT-rich world
• Connections between what students do outside of class
and inside
• Approaches which integrate content and language
– CLIL etc
– Japanese cultural content/intercultural content
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