AS Economics

• Market failure occurs when the free market, left alone, fails to deliver an efficient allocation of resources. The result is a loss of economic and social welfare.

• Negative externalities e.g. pollution causing the social cost to exceed the private costs
• Positive externalities e.g. education causing the social benefit to exceed the private benefits
• Imperfect information meaning merit goods are underproduced and demerit goods are over-produced
• The private sector being unable to supply important public and quasi-public goods
• Market dominance by monopolies
• Immobility of factors of production causes unemployment and productive inefficiency
• Equity (fairness) issues resulting in an unacceptable distribution of income and social exclusion

Which of the following would provide evidence of market failure?
a)shortages b)unemployment c) unfilled job vacancies d)output occurring inside the PPF

• MF results in productive inefficiency
• Firms are not maximising output from given factor inputs
• This is problematic as lost output could have been used to satisfy more needs and wants; resources are misallocated and producing goods and services not wanted by consumers
– resources could have been put to better use

• Externalities are costs OR benefits that spill over to third parties external to a market transaction

Social costs or benefits
Externality
– positive or negative depending on costs or benefits
Private
Costs or
Benefits

A public house is permitted to stay open all weekend over the May bank holiday. Identify one group of people not directly involved in running or visiting the pub who may: a)benefit from this decision b)suffer as a result of this decision

• Private costs of any action are those suffered by the individual decision maker
• Social costs of any action are all the conceivable costs associated with that action
• If social costs exceed private costs then a negative
externality exists; the private optimum level of output is greater than the social optimum level of output – the individual or consumer does not take into account the effects of externalities into their calculations
• PC/SC are usually referred to in the ‘margin’ – the costs or benefits of one extra unit of output
• So, MSC = MPC + MEC

• These arise when third parties benefit from the ‘spillover’ effects of production and consumption
• Education – improves skills and productivity –
PB of better for employers – earn more – SB – you increase living standards of the nation
• So, MSB = MPB + MEB

Identify: a)three private costs a bus company may incur when operating a bus rout b)two private benefits a newspaper company can gain from selling its newspapers

• Identify a benefit the other residents of a street could gain from one household holding a firework party to which they were not invited

• Identify three negative externalities which villagers may experience as a result of a bypass being built through their village

0
P
1
P
Q
1
Q
S
1
(MSC = MPC + MEC)
D
S (MPC)
Quantity
•At price P and demand/supply Q, only the private costs are taken into account
•If the external costs are taken into account then the supply curve would shift to the left to S
1
•Price would rise from P to
P
1
•Equilibrium quantity would fall from Q to Q
1
•The negative externality is
causing over-production of
Q-Q
1 and the price paid is lower than it should be

P
1
P
0
S (MPB)
•At price P and demand/supply Q, only the private benefits are taken into account
•If the external benefits are taken into account then the demand curve would shift to the right to D
1
•The market equilibrium would be at
Price P
1 and Quantity Q
1
• When the market fails to operate in this way there is under-production and this is shown by the difference between Q
1
Q and
•Too few scarce resources are being used hence the market failure
Q Q
1
D
1
(MSB = MPB + MEB)
D (MPB)
Quantity

• Negative externalities lead to over-production
• Positive externalities lead to under-production
• MSC = MPC + MEC
• MSB = MPB + MEB

• Merit goods are more beneficial for consumers than they realise – usually have positive externalities. Governments usually subsidise these so consumption does not depend on ability to pay
• Left to market forces merit goods would be under-consumed and so under-produced
(underprovided)
• Demerit goods are more harmful for consumers than they realise – usually have negative externalities, and are over-provided

Decide whether the following are merit or demerit goods: a) heroin b) catalytic convertors c) insurance d) MOT tests e) public libraries f) education g) legal drugs h) healthcare i) tobacco j) vaccinations k) alcohol

P
1
P
0
Q Q
1
S (MSC) •Demand (D) is based on an underestimate of the private benefits of a merit good.
•The full benefit to consumers and third parties is represented by the curve D
1
•Society would gain from increasing output from Q to Q1
D
1
(MSB = MPB + MEB)
D (MPB)
Quantity

S (MSC)
P
P
1
•Demand (D) is based on an overestimate of the private benefits of a demerit good.
•The full benefit to consumers and third parties is represented by the curve D
1
•A reduction in output from Q to Q1 would be a move towards a more efficient allocation of resources
0
Q
1
Q
D
1
D
Quantity