Crisis Management
Step Two of the Decision Tree
Chapter Nine
Public Tragedies, Relief and
Humanitarian Aid
• Crisis management is directed at populations and
communities in urgent need of resources due to a
disaster or public tragedy.
• Crisis Management has two functions:
(1) Secure the scene and engage in rescue
and recovery – first responders
(2) Provide relief programs to populations in
urgent need and reconstruct communities in
the disaster aftermath.
Social Work and Disaster
Management
• Social workers use the methods of policy,
advocacy, community, and management practice
to respond to disasters and public tragedies.
• Policies establish and guide relief programs.
• Managers administer emergency service
organizations and co-ordinate relief services;
resources must be sustained and maintained
overtime.
Social Work and Disaster
Management
• Communities plan for disasters and respond in a
timely manner to unfolding events; material goods
and human resources are deployed in the crisis
aftermath; communities need to be rebuilt and the
populace supported by concrete services.
• Advocacy is used to raise awareness and keep the
public focused on unmet need.
• Advocacy is used to secure funds, material
resources, and volunteers to aid with the relief
effort.
Definition
Disaster
• Social workers respond to domestic and
international crises.
• A disaster is an unforeseen and often sudden
event that causes great damage, destruction
and human suffering (FEMA).
• Disasters are often caused by nature or may
have human origins.
Disasters-Continued
• Disasters often destroy homelands and displace
people.
• A disaster has the potential of permanently
damaging ecological systems; irreparable damage
to a sustainable environment.
• Examples of man-made disasters are: wars, civil
disturbances and acts of genocide. A combination
of human error and “nature” are explosions, fires,
accidents involving hazardous materials, drought
(poor farming practices), transportation incidents
(air, sea, rail auto), nuclear accidents.
Public Tragedy
• A disaster becomes a public tragedy when it
focuses national or international attention
and mourning.
• A public tragedy elicits a societal response
and collective action.
• Disasters reflect the quality of adaptability
and resiliency between people and their
communities.
Response Levels
Crisis Management
• Disasters have municipal, regional, national, and
international levels of emergency response and
law enforcement.
• Disasters require immediate response and long
term recovery.
• Social workers are employed by governmental and
non-governmental organizations. They work with
displaced persons and political refugees. Some
work to rebuild local communities affected by
disasters and others work in international
organizations or ministries.
Disaster Typology
Acute and Gradual
• There are two types of disasters (1) those that are
unexpected (acute) and (2) those that are
predictable (gradual in the making) and therefore
preventive action is possible.
• Some disasters are gradual in their making i.e.
drought can lead to famine; local diseases may
become epidemics, a downturn in the economy
may lead to economic depression, war can lead to
genocide and ecological destruction.
• Disasters that are gradual in the making may be
averted through preventive intervention.
Disaster Typology
Acute and Gradual
• Acute disasters (whether man-made or due
to nature) are unexpected. They include
hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
tornadoes, blizzards, mud slides, tidal
waves, forest fires, oil spills, building
collapse, explosions, hazardous material or
transportation incident, nuclear accident.
Scale, Location
• Disasters are, by definition, measured on a
scale calibrated to register massive
destruction, multiple casualties, mutilated
bodies, and life threatening situations.
• The locations of a disaster (urban/rural;
local, national, international) affects the
timeliness and sustainability of resources
and support.
Scope
• In the last ten years 2 billion people or 1/3rd
of the earth’s population were affected by
disasters (Regehr and Bober, 2005).
• Between 1992-2000, the United Nations
reported 4, 989 disasters throughout the
world; approximately 500 disasters/year.
Scope
Continued
• An average of 60,000 people are killed each
year by natural disasters.
• Armed conflict, genocide, and terrorism add
to this number. Of the 25 largest violent
events of the 20th century it is estimated that
191 million people have lost their lives
(Reza et al, 2001).
Theories of Disaster Management
Several theories inform models of disaster
management:
(1) Historical Perspective
(2) Prevention Model (Public Health)
(3) Problem-Solving- Task Model
(4) Conservation of Resources (COR)
(5) Organizational Readiness (StructureFunctional theory)
(6) Traumatogenic Forces
Theories
Historical Perspective
• Initially, disasters were regarded as rare events of
nature (outside forces). They were perceived
fatalistically; neither predictable nor preventable.
• Overtime it was recognized that human actions
contributed to disaster occurrence either through
(1) preventable causes (i.e.poor building
construction- poor farming practices) or through
(2) deliberate acts of intentional harm (i.e.
terrorism, toxic waste, genocide). This led to the
recognition that human action might prevent or
mitigate the effects of disasters.
Theories
Prevention Model
• The concept of prevention has its origins in
public health and community psychiatry.
• Prevention is conceptualized as primary
(prevention-preparedness), secondary (early
intervention), and tertiary (recovery in the
disaster aftermath).
• Macro methods are needed to implement
the three phases of this prevention model
Primary Prevention
Preparedness
• Primary prevention identifies risks and hazards in
the environment in an effort to eradicate them and
prevent disasters.
• Comprehensive disaster preparedness plans help
communities mitigate the effects of the disasters
that occur unexpectedly and that unfold rapidly.
• Public education, rehearsal, and training prepare
citizens to respond to a disaster in a manner that
promotes resiliency and minimizes risk.
• A corps of first responders (police, fire, and
medics) are trained to perform rescue & recovery.
Secondary Prevention
Early Intervention
• Secondary prevention or early intervention
consists of rescue and recovery.
• During the rescue phase, first responders are
responsible for gaining control of the event
or scene, preserving life and treating the
wounded.
• During the recovery phase, responders
locate the dead and process the remains.
Tertiary Prevention
Recovery Phase
• Social workers help reconstruct communities and
make repairs to the land and infrastructure.
• Social workers consider a variety of interventions
that lie along the macro-micro continuum.
• Clinical social workers provide direct face-to-face
concrete resources and counseling both on-site and
in the crisis aftermath.
• Policy, advocacy, management and community
practitioners establish policies and programs,
fund, staff, and manage disaster relief programs
and organizations.
Theories
Problem-Solving-Task Model
• This model has nine tasks.
(1) Gain control of the event, scene
(2) Preserve life and treat the wounded
(rescue)
(3) Locate and recover the dead (recovery).
(4) Manage risks on the scene and establish safe
zones where victims can be relocated
(5) Deploy and manage resources- water, food,
shelter, sanitation, safety, clothing
Problem-Solving- Task Model
Continued
(6) Provide security; protect person & property;
prevent looting
(7) Provide official information on the disaster
and the course of recovery; restore
communication between survivors and their
loved ones
(8) Control rumors and maintain calm and
cooperation
(9) Assess secondary social problems such as
health epidemics or displaced persons.
Theories
Conservation of Resources
• According to Hobfoll (1989) material and
social resources are key determinants in
communal efficacy in responding to
disasters.
• Hobfoll’s theory conceptualizes resources in
the context of stress.
• This theory has two foci: (1) community
infrastructure, (2) resource depletion
Conservation of Resources
Continued
• In a disaster, communities attempt to obtain,
retain, protect and foster resources.
• Where resources are scarce, a military or police
presence is needed to regulate access and deter
looting.
• This theory recognizes that local communities or
governments may not be able to absorb the impact
of a disaster with their own resources.
• There often is a need for directed invitations for
outside help.
Conservation of Resources
Resource Overload
• Directed invitations for outside support may
lead to resource overload.
• Whether material or human, resources need
to be coordinated. Human resources need to
be housed and fed.
• Like the disaster itself, the arrival of
resources can overtax a community.
Conservation of Resources
Resource Loss
• In a disaster, the loss of one resource can quickly
cascade into a series of losses. (Examples in text)
• The loss of a resource or the failure to regain
resources after a disaster is a significant predictor
of community stress.
• Depletion of material and human resources may
lead to significant out-migration of the populace
from the affected area and significant migratory
influx to nearby areas.
Theories
Organizational Readiness
• Structure-functional theory informs organizational
practice during a disaster.
• Two layers of organizations are affected:
(1) the local area impacted by the disaster
responds first.
(2) External emergency relief organizations
may be invited to assist the affected local
community.
Local Organizations
• Communities have a local office of emergency
preparedness.
• This office is responsible for preparing a local
emergency plan, initiating early warning systems,
issuing evacuation orders and activating first
responders.
• This office has a command structure composed of
experts in communication, transportation, law
enforcement, emergency medical care and
emergency mental health counselors.
Directed Invitations
External Organizations
• Depending on the location of the disaster, getting
resources to it may be very difficult.
• The disaster may make the landscape
unrecognizable; roads and sinage may be gone.
• Supplies (material and human), though available,
may not be able to get where needed. Military and
private sector airlifts may be required.
Theories
Traumatogenic Forces
• According to Bloom (1998) what initially appears
to be an isolated or unpredictable event may, upon
closer analysis, reveal societal patterns that lead to
the disaster.
• Capitalism (profit motive) may be a traumatogenic
force in that it can lead to soil erosion, toxic waste,
poor building construction, cost-saving tactics,
and lax standards and enforcement.
• Immigration policies that endanger individuals or
separate families or fail to respond to the plight of
others may lead to humanitarian disasters.
Policies: Disaster Relief &
Humanitarian Aid
• See chart 9.2
• Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency
Assistance Act. PL 93-288 – US.
• Congressional Disaster Relief Acts 1803; 1970;
1974
• Congressional charter of 1905 – authorized
American Red Cross to provide disaster relief
around the world.
• United Nations resolution 46/182 – created the
office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs.
Relief and Humanitarian
Organizations
• See chart 9.3
• Such organizations may be International (United
Nations) or National (FEMA; Red Cross)
• Only the president of the United States can declare
a national disaster and activate FEMA; Only a
governor can declare a state emergency and
activate the national guard.
• Several non-governmental organizations (NGO’s),
religious communities and professional
organizations (NASW and APA) participate in
relief efforts and humanitarian aid.
Values
Ideology and Ethics
• Competitive ideologies and values influence
the decision to offer relief or humanitarian
aid.
• Three of social work’s six core values
support humanitarian principles: (1) service
to others, (2) social justice, (3) dignity and
worth of each individual regardless of color,
language, or geographic location.
Humanitariansim
• Humanitarianism refers to principles and practices
based on the doctrine that man’s ethical
obligations are bound to the welfare of the human
race.
• Deontologists (absolutists) argue that providing
humanitarian aid is inherently the right thing to
do.
• Teleologists (relativists) argue that every action
requires evaluation based on its potential
consequences.
Theories of Social Justice
Humanitarian Aid and Relief
• Theories of social justice inform decisions related
to desired end-goals.
• Utilitariansim seeks a response that will result in
the greatest good for the greatest number.
• Egalitarianism (equality) and Contractarianism
(equity) seek fairness in the distribution of goods
and services to nations and populations who have
great need from nations and populations that have
much to give.
Socio-Political Ideology
• Domestic and international socio-political
ideologies complicate decisions to engage in
disaster relief and humanitarian aid.
• Decisions involving the allocation of resources are
often associated with ethnic, racial, religious, or
socio-economic class bias.
• Exchanges between populations with perceived
similarities are more readily achieved than
exchanges between populations which are
dissimilar.
Socio-Political Ideology
Continued
• Bias, in addition to need, shapes who gets
help, how much and from whom.
• Within nations, conflicts of interest between
opposing groups (i.e. citizens and chemical
plants) is common.
• There are many different publics, each with
its own socio-political reality.
War
Political Appraisal
• Socio-political in nature, war often leads to
conscription, detention, physical abuse, rape,
military occupation, loss of civil rights and
genocide.
• Even “just” wars produce human suffering and
inhumane treatment for the civilian population as
well as for military troops.
• Decisions to interfere in the affairs of other
nations often depends on political rather than
humanitarian appraisal
On-Site Conditions
• Hardship is incurred for those who deliver
humanitarian relief in a disaster.
• On-site settings can be cramped, crowded,
extremely hot, cold or wet.
• Tents, temporary shelters and refugee camps are
common settings.
• There is no sharp demarcation between being on
or off duty.
• Privacy, routine, and the comforts of home are
distant memories.
On-Site Conditions
• Food is often nourishing but unappetizing;
it is often culturally unfamiliar.
• Hazardous conditions continue and, in some
instances, a threat to life remains a reality.
Importance of Technology
• Technology helps communities predict, warn and
respond to disasters.
• Satellite imagery can monitor conditions on
land, sea and air.
• Doppler systems can track wind, rain, snow and
weather fronts.
• Meteorologists issue weather related watches (36
hrs) and warnings (24 hrs).
• Computers generate models of unfolding events
based on data input.
Importance of Technology
Continued
• Surveillance planes can fly into the eye of the
storm and seismographs measure movement
beneath the earth and sea and within volcanoes.
• Helicopters rescue persons and provide aerial
surveys of damage.
• Wealthier nations have greater access to
technological resources to warn and respond to
disaster events.
Media Coverage
• The media shapes public sympathy by how much
time and space they give to cover a disaster.
• Whom is interviewed is often related to sociopolitical factors.
• Mainstream broadcasting networks devote little
sustained attention to disasters outside of North
America.
• Reporters provide factual accounts of what
happened, describe its significance and suggest
social action
Media Coverage
Continued
• The media becomes part of public inquiry in the
disaster aftermath.
• The media investigates why the disaster happened
and how it could have been avoided.
• The media investigates the response to the disaster
in order to learn from it and improve performance
in the next event.
• In the process of inquiry, the media often turns
heroes into villains.
The Economics of
Disaster Relief: Cost
• Between 1980-2002, there were more than 54
weather-related disasters at a minimum cost of
over a billion dollars each.
• Estimated total costs for these events was 300
billion dollars.
• Budgeted monies may be depleted in a large scale
event or a series of events.
• Fund raising is an important aspect of providing
disaster relief and humanitarian aid.
Accountability
Disaster Relief
There are six types of accountability
(1) Operational debriefing reviews the
actions taken in order to learn from
experience and improve performance in
subsequent missions.
(2) Retrospective analysis: seeks to identify
causality (blame) and performance errors.
(3) Fiscal: managers are held accountable for all
expenditures.
Accountability
Disaster Relief
(4) Public officials are held accountable for
acts of commission and omission.
(5) Ethical accountability: actions taken
and not taken are evaluated against an
ethical screen of value hierarchies.
(6) Managers are held accountable for the
treatment of personnel deployed to deliver
services.
Case Examples
Decision Schemas
• See a crisis management case example and
chapter-specific decision schemas in text.