組織
Organizing
•
organization chart vs. organizing
•
組織的目的在於 讓平凡人做不平凡事。
(P. F. Drucker)
•
不要期待主管給你溫暖，因為他站的位置比你高
，比你更寒冷。 (104, Simon)
2
綱要
一、組織設計之定義：工作安排與結構面
二、組織設計之實務應用：七個常見實例
三、組織設計之今日挑戰
四、Contemporary Issues In Managing Change
3
一、 組織設計之定義：工作安排與結構面
1. 工作專業化
2. 部門化
3. 指揮鏈
4. 管轄幅度
5. 集（分）權
6. 形式化
討論：複雜度(分科、分層、差異化)，
集權度，形式化。
4
1. Work Specialization 工作專業化
 The
degree to which tasks in the organization
are divided into separate jobs with each step
completed by a different person.
 Overspecialization can result in human
diseconomies from boredom, fatigue, stress,
poor quality, increased absenteeism, and higher
turnover.
5
Economies and Diseconomies of
Work Specialization
2. Departmentalization 部門化

Functional

 Grouping
jobs by
functions performed

jobs by
product line

 Grouping
jobs on the
basis of product or
customer flow
Product
 Grouping
Geographical
 Grouping
jobs on the
basis of territory or
geography
Process

Customer
 Grouping
jobs by
type of customer and
needs
7
Functional Departmentalization:
cost L, morale H, 隧道視線
Plant
Manager
Manager,
Engineering
Manager,
Accounting
Manager,
Manufacturing
Manager,
Human
Resources
Manager,
Purchasing
8
Product Departmentalization
Bombardier, Ltd.
Mass Transit
Sector
Recreational and Utility
Vehicles Sector
Mass Transit
Division
Recreational Products
Division
Bombardier-Rotax
(Vienna)
Logistic Equipment
Division
Rail Products
Sector
Industrial Equipment
Division
Bombadier-Rotax
(Gunskirchen)
9
Geographical Departmentalization
Vice President
for Sales
Sales Director,
Western Region
Sales Director,
Southern Region
Sales Director,
Midwestern Region
Sales Director,
Eastern Region
10
Process Departmentalization
Plant Superintendent
Sawing
Department
Manager
Planing and
Milling
Department
Manager
Finishing
Department
Manager
Inspection and
Shipping
Department
Manager
Assembling
Department
Manager
Lacquering and
Sanding
Department
Manager
11
Customer Departmentalization
Director
of Sales
Manager,
Retail Accounts
Manager,
Wholesale Accounts
Manager,
Government Accounts
12
未來重要趨勢
 customer
departmentalization
e.g. 楷模廣告
13
3. Chain of Command 指揮鏈
 The
continuous line of authority that extends
from upper levels of an organization to the
lowest levels of the organization and
clarifies who reports to who.
 Unity
of Command 指揮統一
 The
concept that a person should have one
boss and should report only to that person.
e.g. Enron.
 Whistling?（吹口哨，打小報告）
14
 Authority
職權
 The
rights inherent in a managerial position
to tell people what to do and to expect them
to do it.
 Responsibility
 The
職責
obligation or expectation to perform.
 Line
vs. Staff
15
Chain of Command
and Line Authority
16
Line vs. Staff Authority
17
4. Span of Control 管轄幅度
The number of employees who can be effectively
and efficiently supervised by a manager.
 affected by:

 Skills
and abilities of the manager
 Employee characteristics
 Characteristics of the work being done
 Similarity of tasks
 Complexity of tasks
 Physical proximity of subordinates
 Standardization of tasks
 IS, Culture, Leading style,……
18
Contrasting Spans of Control
Organizational Level
Members at Each Level
1
1
1
2
4
8
3
16
64
4
64
512
5
256
4,096
6
1,024
7
4,096
Span of 4
Operatives
= 4,096
Managers (levels 1-6) = 1,365
Span of 8
Operatives
= 4,096
Managers (levels 1-4) = 585
19
5. Centralization 集權
 The
degree to which decision-making is
concentrated at a single point in the organizations.

Decentralization 分權
 Organizations
in which decision-making is pushed
down to the managers who are closest to the action.
20
6. Formalization 形式化
 The
degree to which jobs within the organization
are standardized and the extent to which employee
behavior is guided by rules and procedures.
 Highly formalized jobs offer little discretion over
what is to be done.
 e.g. Explicit job description.
21
Mechanistic vs. Organic Organization:
Paradigm Shift (軍隊，C&C vs.交響樂團，知識工作者）
Mechanistic
• High Specialization
• Rigid Departmentalization
• Clear Chain of Command
• Narrow Spans of Control
• Centralization
• High Formalization
Organic
• Cross-Functional Teams
• Cross-Hierarchical Teams
• Free Flow of Information
• Wide Spans of Control
• Decentralization
• Low Formalization
22
權變理論架構
vs. one best way
權變因素
組織結構
.策略
.複雜度
.規模
.集權度
.技術
.形式化
.環境
(權力，政治)
組織效能
.獲利，成長
.顧客滿意
.員工滿意
23
Contingency Factors: 1. Strategy:
Structure follows Strategy (A. Chandler)

Innovation 攻，Amazon, Starbucks
 Pursuing
competitive advantage through meaningful and
unique innovations favors an organic structuring.

Cost minimization 守，McDonald
 Focusing
on tightly controlling costs requires a
mechanistic structure for the organization.
24
2. Size
 As
an organization grows larger, its structure
tends to change from organic to mechanistic
with increased specialization,
departmentalization, centralization, and rules
and regulations.
25
實證研究
規模
+
複雜度
.水平差異化
.垂直差異化
政府機關
（企業組織）
e.g. Parkinson’s law: The number of subordinates increases
at a fixed rate regardless of the amount of work produced.
26
實證研究
規模
-
集權度
專業管理者
（擁有者）
27
實證研究
+
規模
形式化
相依單位
（獨立單位）
28
3. Technology

Organizations adapt their structures to their
technology.

Routine technology = mechanistic organizations

Non-routine technology = organic organizations
29
Structural
Characteristics
Woodward’s Findings on Technology,
Structure, and Effectiveness
Unit
Production
Mass
Production
Low vertical
differentiation
Low horizontal
differentiation
Low formalization
Moderate vertical High vertical
differentiation
differentiation
High horizontal
Low horizontal
differentiation
differentiation
High formalization Low formalization
Most effective
structure
Organic
Mechanistic
Process
Production
Organic
30
4. Environmental Uncertainty

Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be
most effective in stable and simple environments.

The flexibility of organic organizational structures
is better suited for dynamic and complex
environments.
31
二、組織設計之應用：七個常見實例
1. 簡單結構
2. 功能結構
3. 部門結構
4. 團隊編組
5. 專案與矩陣結構
6. 無邊界組織
7. 學習型組織
討論： 1. 大潤發採購部品保組，遠航飛安室
2. 自主團隊有多自主？
32
Traditional Designs
1. Simple structure 簡單結構
 Low
departmentalization, wide spans of control,
centralized authority, little formalization
2. Functional structure 功能結構
 Departmentalization
by function
 Operations, finance, human resources, and product
research and development
3. Divisional structure 部門結構
 Composed
of separate business units or divisions with
limited autonomy under the coordination and control the
parent corporation.
33
Contemporary Designs
4. Team structures 團隊編組
 The
entire organization is made up of work groups or
self-managed teams of empowered employees.
5. Matrix and project structures 專案與矩陣結構
 Specialists
from different functional departments are
assigned to work on projects led by project managers.
 Matrix
and project participants have two managers.
 In
project structures, employees work continuously on
projects; moving on to another project as each project is
completed.
34
A Matrix Organization in an Aerospace Firm
35
6. Boundaryless Organization 無邊界組織
 An
flexible and unstructured organizational
design.
 Removes
internal (horizontal) boundaries:
 Eliminates
 Has
the chain of command
limitless spans of control
 Uses
empowered teams rather than departments
 Eliminates
external boundaries:
 Uses
virtual, network, and modular organizational
structures to get closer to stakeholders.
 e.g.
Nike
36
7. Learning Organization 學習型組織

An organization that has developed the capacity to
continuously learn, adapt, and change through the
practice of knowledge management by employees.
37
Characteristics of a Learning Organization
Organizational Design
• Boundaryless
• Teams
• Empowerment
Organizational Culture
• Strong Mutual
Relationships
• Sense of Community
• Caring
• Trust
The
Learning
Organization
Leadership
• Shared Vision
• Collaboration
Information Sharing
• Open
• Timely
• Accurate
38
三、組織設計之今日挑戰

Keeping Employees Connected
 Widely
dispersed and mobile employees
Building a Learning Organization
 Managing Global Structural Issues

 Cultural
implications of design elements
39
The Importance of HRM

HR: 1. 熟悉相關法令 ，2.勞資關係良好，
3.競爭優勢之來源

辨認與選擇能勝任的員工，提供員工必要的技巧
與知識，留住勝任、高績效員工。
e.g. Microsoft, ADK: Attractive, Develop, Keep
40
The HRM Process
Environment
Human
Resource
Planning
Recruitment
Selection
Identification and selection
of competent employees
Decruitment
Orientation
Training
Performance
Management
Career
Development
Adapted and competent
employees with up-to-date
skills and knowledge
Compensation
and
Benefits
Environment
Competent employees who
are capable of sustaining high
performance over the long term
41
Examples of High-Performance Work Practices







Self-managed teams
Decentralized decision making
Training programs to develop knowledge, skills, and
abilities
Flexible job assignments
Open communication
Performance-based compensation
Staffing based on person–job and person–organization
fit
42
EAP 簡介
■ 「員工協助方案」(Employee Assistance Programs）：
連結組織內外各項可利用資源，積極協助員工解決生活、
工作與健康上會影響其工作效率的問題。
EAP企業風雲榜
整合式 EAP方案服務模式
Some Suggestions for a Successful Management Career
46
人力資源管理之當前課題
1. 組織重整，人力精簡, Downsizing
2. 工作人力之多樣性, Work Force Diversity
3. 性騷擾, Sexual Harassment, Workplace Romances
4. 兼顧家庭生活, Work-Life Balance
5. Controlling HR Costs
47
The Unwritten Laws of Business
(1) 當你是職場新人
 However menial and trivial your early assignments may appear,
give them your best efforts.
 One of the first things you owe your supervisor is to keep him or her
informed of all significant developments.
(2) 當你成為管理者
 Do not try to do it all yourself.
 Put first things first in applying yourself to your job.
(3) 品格永遠是基本
 One of the most valuable personal traits is the ability to get along
with all kinds of people.
 Regard your personal integrity as one of your most important assets.
48
四、Contemporary Issues In
Managing Change
 Face
it: The only constant thing about change
is that it’s constant.
 沒有壞，不要動它？John
Kotter,
“Leading Change”, 1996.
“The Heart of Change”, 2002.
“A Sense of Urgency”, 2009.
49
Who moved my cheese?
(Spencer Johnson)
四個主角
嗅嗅：嗅出市場變化，勇於嘗試新方法，及時應變
快快：執行力
哼哼：總是找藉口，”我們向來都是……”，不知變通
哈哈：雖然一開始觀望, 但 open mind, 能容納新觀點, 改變行為。
Change can take your life into the next level!
認清世事無常，監督變化，迅速因應，
改變自己，享受轉變，
做好迅速改變自己的準備，一遍又一遍樂在其中。
50
External and Internal Forces for Change

External
• Changing consumer
needs and wants
• New governmental laws
• Changing technology
• Economic changes

Internal
• New organizational
strategy
• Change in composition
of workforce
• New equipment
• Changing employee
attitudes
51
借力使力
助
力
現
況
組
織
阻
力
改組過程
目
標
組
織
52
1. The Change Process

The Calm Waters Metaphor 平靜止水 (Lewin)
 Unfreezing the status quo
 Changing to a new state
 Refreezing to make the change permanent

White-Water Rapids Metaphor 激流泛舟
 The lack of environmental stability and predictability
requires that managers and organizations continually adapt
(manage change actively) to survive.
 毛老師在觀光局
 反敗為勝的 Lee Iacocca
 讓大象跳舞的 Lou Gerstner
53
2. Managing Organizational Change
Three Types of Change: 結構，技術，人
54
3. Managing Resistance to Change

Why People Resist Change
 The
ambiguity and uncertainty that change
introduces
 The
comfort of old habits (inertia)
A
concern over personal loss of status, money,
authority, friendships, and personal convenience
 The
perception that change is incompatible with
the goals and interest of the organization
55
Managerial Actions to Reduce Resistance to Change
降低抗拒之技巧
• Education and communication
• Participation
• Facilitation and support
• Negotiation
• Manipulation and co-optation
• Selecting people who accept change
• Coercion
56
Kotter's 8 Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Acting With Urgency, vs. 自視太高
Developing the Guiding Coalition, vs. 缺少有力的變革領導
團隊
Developing a Change Vision, vs. 低估組織願景的重要性
Communicating the Vision Buy-in, vs. 變革願景未做充分溝
通
Empowering Broad-based Action, vs. 坐視問題叢生
Generating Short-term Wins, vs. 欠缺近程戰果
Don't Let Up, vs. 太早宣布勝利
Make Change Stick, vs. 紮根不實
2015/4/8
任維廉教授 Professor William Jen
57
Issues in Managing Change:
Making Change Happen Successfully

Embrace change—become a change-capable
organization.

Create a simple, compelling message explaining why
change is necessary.

Communicate constantly and honestly.

Foster as much employee participation as possible—get
all employees committed.

Encourage employees to be flexible.

Remove those who resist and cannot be changed.
58
Issues in Managing Change:
Handling Employee Stress

這瓶水多重？你能拿多久？
 Functional

Stress 鑽石是壓力造成的！壓力到底是好是壞？
How Potential Stress Becomes Actual Stress
 When
there is uncertainty over the outcome.
 When
the outcome is important.
 e.g.
當掉1/3, 荷馬壓力量表。
59
Symptoms of Stress
60
Reducing Stress
Engage in proper employee selection
 Use realistic job interviews for reduce ambiguity
 Improve organizational communications
 Develop a performance planning program
 Use job redesign
 Provide a counseling program
 Offer time planning management assistance
 Sponsor wellness programs

61
壓力研究之典範
背景脈絡
人口統計變項
駕駛員工作相關
背景變項
壓力反應與結果
工作壓力源
調節變數
12–62
公車駕駛員知覺到的職業環境要求與資源
資源
調整照明
改善噪音
調整座位
站長領導
親友與家人的支持
要求
高工作負荷
低控制特性
高社會隔離
其他
因應策略
休閒放鬆
63
How Study Management?
1. Come to class, 2. Read the material, 3. Do your assignment:
分組作業：上網找資料，討論當前熱門議題。
(7) 上網 key in: “Examples of High-Performance Work
Practices”, 寫心得。
(8) 上網找「員工協助方案（EAP ）」成功例子，寫
心得。
(9) 上網找 「組織改組 (Reorg.) 」成功例子，寫心得。
(10) 上網找如何處理變革帶來的壓力之實例，寫心
得。
64
回顧
比較
Mechanistic VS. Organic organization

Unfreeze
VS. Refreeze
Driving
VS. Restraining forces
65
Terms to Know










cross-functional teams
authority
span of control
centralization
employee empowerment
formalization
matrix structure
virtual organization
learning organization
organizational change
66
Case: 爭功邀寵 （跨部門常見的問題）

1. 你認為 Alex 為何非常生氣？

2. 誰在爭功邀寵？

3. 若你是 Alex, 會採取什麼行動？先找誰談？
James, Max, 還是誰？為什麼？
67
Takeaways: Don’t

假定自己已掌握全部事實。
假定對方有偏見，動機可疑。
 單方面讓步，給對方好處。or 簡單地拒絕
對方要求。
 專橫跋扈，頑固閉塞。
 未曾評估對手的觀感和反應，就採取行動。
忽略自身行為對目前及未來的影響。

68
Takeaways: Do

一開始就主動詢問對方看法，據此設定目標，
及達成目標之方法。
了解對方的動機與考量，提出多個建議方案，
請對方調整。
 以事實及公平原則說服對方。
 尊重對方，言行贏得對手尊敬，建立互信。
 不僅談問題，還討論過程，如陷入僵局則放
慢步調。

69
Takeaways: Others

我想要的東西，有些自己可以掌控，有些掌握在別人手上。
故要得到我想要的東西，必須先知道別人要什麼。別人的
行為準則不見得和我一樣，有時必須順應情況，調整自己。

一昧的坦白與率直很好嗎？還是要看情境與對象？
對方是自制且謙和的人，還是進取而貪婪的人？
過度大方，還是過度小氣與小心？

其他經驗分享：增強寬廣視野（由技入道），決策技巧，
自我/團隊認同，環境敏感度與適應能力。
70
自己怎麼看別人？
看老闆：機車，挑剔。
 看同事：見不得人好。
 看部屬：難帶，要求授權。

71
別人給你打幾分？
老闆看你：只專注在一小塊拼圖上，老是需要
被激勵。
 同事看你：本位主義，隧道視線，卡在中間。
 部屬看你：沒有願景？還是不能溝通清楚？

72
男人的七個敵人
73
能自省者，無敵！




認識、接受、喜歡自己，提升他人。改變自己很
難，從小我，自私，到視他人為夥伴，助人，完
成大我。
作為別人老闆：自己激勵自己。幫助員工，學著
放手，讓整個組織動起來。
作為別人同事：值得尊敬。相信別人的善意，多
溝通，藉合作為公司帶來價值。
作為別人部屬：總是達成目標，超越期望。
74
Personal Advice

1. Domain knowledge 要深：function / disciplinary skills.
2. Background knowledge 要廣：ability to apply knowledge
across situations.

Business：不一定是你死我活，而是善用比自己能力更強
的人，並且和他們合作，互利共存。 - Andrew Carnegie

Align：單打獨鬥力量小。若能發揮自己長處，又知道如何
槓桿做得比你好的伙伴。只要方向與策略不離譜，個人願
意學習、改進，團隊不猜忌，則成功機會將大增。

Integrate, partnership：了解你所處的超系統，學習跟那些
不曾合作過的人合作，試著與與利害關係人共創價值。
75
Opportunities

Do




持續表現優異，
over deliver: 永遠做到比老闆要求的更多
展現良好的道德、操守與品格
有領導欲，願意承擔更大責任
Don’t



缺乏主動精神，紀律差
不善處理人際關係， 不能溝通，不懂體諒
對組織抱著狹隘偏頗的觀點，把個人利益放在公司利
益之上，愛單打獨鬥，不願擔責任，不想學會看懂財
務報表，不想管錢
76
Learned optimism!
*合字難寫：一人一張口。負面思考！
反掌之間，變成正面態度之能量。
*化敵人為貴人！
加班：時間管理不佳？賣力工作！
抱歉，我不喜歡那樣：沒禮貌？實話實說。
*逆向操作，把缺點變優點：
傲慢？很有自信！
挑剔！重視品質。
77
Q&A
E-Mail：wljen@mail.nctu.edu.tw
78