Evolution of Modern Health &
Safety Concepts
Tracing the historical development of
heath & safety concerns and
programs
Robert Emery, DrPH, CHP, CIH, CSP, RBP, CHMM, CPP, ARM
Vice President for Safety, Health, Environment & Risk Management
The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
Associate Professor of Occupational Health
The University of Texas School of Public Health
Earliest Civilization
• Family groups expanded to tribes
• Represented common interests, kinship
• A practical principle developed:
– the greatest ultimate good for the greatest
number
– thus, a person was not as important as the tribe,
unless of course, it was the chief
As Tribes Evolved
• Successes of one tribe meant the downfall
of another
• Safety concerns centered around the tribe,
and for select individuals
• Only when a proliferation of injuries or
illnesses afflicted large or noticeable
numbers of individuals did the tribe act
As Tribes Evolved
• The first actions were probably against
disease (great plagues)
• Accidents were, for the most part,
considered personal matters
First Control of “Accidents”
• Punishing countermeasures, not direct
prevention
• Hammurabi (2100 BC) ordered a
compilation of a body of laws for Babylon
• Known as the Code of Hammurabi, the
rules were carved in cuneiform, now located
in Paris
Code of Hammurabi Examples
• If shipping by sea and freight lost, must
reimburse owner
• If ship sank but was re-floated, half price
reimbursement
• If caused by a collision, decision of blame
was based on who was anchored first
Code of Hammurabi Examples
• If a slave were injured (by other than the
master) must pay master
• If an ox gores a man, the act is only
compensible if the ox was known to be
mean
Primary Motivation of
Babylonians
• Redress for damages
• If prevention was intended, it was only an
outcome of the punishing indemnification
schedules
Focusing on Occupational
Hazards
• In ancient times, most of the manual labor
was performed by slaves
• Slaves were considered to be valuable
capital assets
• Pliney the Elder (AD 23-79) wrote of the
diseases of slaves
Focusing on Occupational
Hazards
• Bernardo Ramazzini (1600’s) described
diseases associated with various
occupations
• English Labor Regulations
– excesses of apprentice system (children and
subsequently women)
– limits for mining operations (no children,
women)
– factory regulations for machine guarding
Interesting Question
• Why didn’t employers take control of
situation to avoid the imposition of
regulations?
Follow-up Question
• How many successful prosecutions do you
think occurred?
The
Indemnification/Enforcement
Approach
• Advent of Worker’s Compensation
• Master-servant relationship was historically
close
• Master concept has since grown into,
perhaps, a corporation
• Injured workes sought protection,
indemnification, redress
Worker’s Compensation
• Three ironclad defenses:
– contributory negligence
– assumption of risk
– fellow servant rule
• Also, what employee would want to sue
their employer? And what fellow employees
might serve as witnesses?
Worker’s Compensation
• No fault insurance system developed
• The only proof needed was that the injury
occurred on the job
• In general, medical bills covered, and a
portion of salary provided
• Events categorized as temporary or
permanent, partial or total.
Worker’s Compensation
• Casualty insurance carriers motivated to
keep accidents to a minimum
• Insurance companies initated safety
inspection services
• what about this shift of attention and
perhaps liability) from employer to
insurance company?
Experience Rating System
• Problem overcome by use of experience
rating system, which affected rates
• (what about disincentive to report?)
• Need for uniformity in reporting arose
• In 1937, the ANSI Z16.1 method for
compiling work injury data, was developed
Other Notable Events
• Public safety concerns and product liability
laws
• Advent of OSHA, 1970
• Environmental concerns
• Evolution of specialties – industrial
hygiene, health physics, biosafety
• Other regulations, guidelines, standards of
care
Age of Selected Safety-Related Organizations
(and parallel certifications)
(CBSP)
Review
• The concept of safety evolved from a
population-based, or tribal, approach
• The first safety controls were punishing
countermeasures
• Indemnification approach evolved into
worker’s compensation system
• The master-servant relationship has
changed dramatically
Reference
• Grimaldi, JV; Simonds, RH; Safety
Management, Fifth Edition. American
Society of Safety Enigneers, 1993.
In Class Exercise
• What does the health and safety function
within an organization do today?
–
–
–
–
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What is its mission?
Who are the stakeholders?
What are the hazards/risks?
How are they controlled or managed?
How are they evaluated, and by whom?