International Environmental
Governance & Links to National
Sustainable Development
Strategies / Policy?
• Timeline of key events / policies
• Contemporary debates
• Botswana Case Study – Anti-Desertification &
Development Policies
Global Environmental Conventions /
Protocols
• 1972 – UN Conference on Human Development, Stockholm
– created UNEP
• 1987 – World Commission on Environment & Development
published Brundtland Report, Our Common Future
• 1992 – Rio Earth Summit published Agenda 21,
• 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) & 1997 Kyoto Protocol
• 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)
• 1995 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• 2000 – Millennium Development Goals
• 2002 – Johannesburg Declaration (WSSD)
ALL UNDERPIN NATIONAL POLICY PLANNING!
International Environmental Law
“In the absence of genuine world govt, intl envtl
politics is said to take place in the context of
anarchy” O’Riordan and Jordan, 2000; p. 488
Theories of transboundary externalities led to Joint
Implementation principles
International law is a set of principles, obligations
and rules that bind intl behavior - needs
– Mutual advantage
– Credible threat
– Credible enforcement (a problem even in wellestablished bodies such as EU)
Forms of Intl Environmental Law
• Treaties, conventions, protocols - ‘Hard’ law (on
countries who ratify)
• Framework or Custom Conventions - ‘Soft’ law
allowing countries scope in interpretation of
ambiguous concepts
• Soft law remains central to the evolution of intl
agreements on global commons, due to –
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Scientific doubt & uncertainty
Freedom of action (within body such as EU)
Social learning - adaptation and reinterpretation
Face saving at International meetings
Common Principles of Intl Entl Law
• No binding charter, or coherently organised laws
- distinct move to multilateral agreements at
Jo’burg WSSD
Remaining “Agreed principles” from UNCHD
(1972), UNCED (1992) & WSSD (2002)
• Polluter-pays
• Non-discrimination between states
• Precautionary
• Common but differentiated responsibilities
• Intergenerational equity
• All states should have ‘effective envt legislation’
Environmental ‘Mega-Conferences’ –
An Analysis (Seyfang, 2003)
• UN Summit’s seek to perform –
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Setting Global Agenda’s
Facilitating ‘joined-up’ thinking (interdisciplinary)
Endorsing common principles
Providing global leadership
Building institutional capacity
Legitimising global governance through inclusivity
• “(they) do serve an important function … even though they
are not the panaceas that some had originally hoped they
might be” (Seyfang, 2003; p.224)
• Task remains for UN to incorporate citizen’s and NGO views,
and build on bottom-up activism, at the same time as topdown governmental decision-making
• UN undermined by US’s stance on Kyoto
UNCCD (1995)
• International agreement ratified by 191 nations
• Views land degradation as a sustainable
development issue
• People-centred - sees land users as part of the
solution to degradation
• Promotes ‘local level decision-making’ and
‘community participation’
• All countries produced a National Action
Programme (NAP) = national control still paramount
• Funding issues (as with UNCBD) still unclear and
need clarification
• See - http://www.unccd.int/
Dryland Degradation and Management: What,
Who, Why & Where ?
Dryland Degradation and Management – Who?
• “Drylands cover over 40 % of the Earth’s land surface
and support almost 20 % of the human population, a
figure that rises to 50 % in Africa” Thomas et al.,
2002; p.193.
Extent of Dryland Degradation
– Where?
• Over 1000 million ha classed as degraded
(UNEP, 1997 - World Atlas of Desertification)
Drylands and Desertification Extent
Dryland Env Management and Policy
Context
• Drylands seen an unprecedented expansion of human activities
in the late 20th C, particularly linked to post-colonial African
development
• Yet dryland development has often been challenged and
compromised:
– by replacing indigenous agriculture with inappropriate practices &
technologies;
– by desire of dvpg Governments to engage more in global trade;
– & by the ever-present (and increasing) threat of drought
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1995) an intergovernmental agreement that is a sustainable dvpt
policy, embodying economic, social and environmental needs
• Matches outputs of WSSD (2002) with African food security and
poverty top of the global sustainable development agenda
Desertification : The Issue and
Controversy
• Portrayed as the first big global environmental issue
with African famines & link to desertification driving
much debate from UNCHD (1972) to WSSD (2002)
• Contrasting views that –
• “desertification affects 3.6 billion hectares & threatens
livelihoods of over 1 billion people” (UN, 1992, 1997;
2002)
• “desertification is an institutional myth … one that an
institution wanted to believe & served its purposes”
(Warren & Agnew, 1988; Thomas & Middleton, 1994)
Reasons for ‘Myth / Fact’ Controversy
• Uncertainties over definitions of terms –
desertification, degradation, desiccation, drought etc.
• Problems with subjective nature of expert-led
assessments used to portray desertification extent
(UNCOD, 1977; UN 1984; GLASOD, 1990; UNEP, 1992; 1997)
• Natural variability of drylands leading to
environmental changes & suffering in droughts
• Lack of engagement with local
people or Government extension staff
Link to Policy Process
• A slow move away from crisis narratives on
African environments, but much aid spending &
policy formulation still justified on such grounds
(Scoones & Toulmin, 1999)
• Policy process needs flexibility to respond to
complex livelihood dynamics
• Need to build on social capacity (e.g. droughtcoping strategies, farmer innovations) &
maximise existing opportunities (e.g micro-credit
schemes, dissemination of good practice)
• Needs formalised recognition of community
based natural resource management & land
ownership rights
Role of UNCCD and UNDP funds
• Technical & financial support provided to National
Actions Programmes (NAP’s) in 28 African
countries & to sub-regional programmes
• Provision of catalytic funding to local level
community projects
• Thematic support provided for projects on –
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Promoting farmer innovation
Drought preparedness and mitigation
Environmental information systems (EIS) support
Local community level initiatives
• New funding provided for Land Degradation
Assessment in Drylands (LADA)
• Case studies – Botswana (today) & Swaziland
(next week)
Botswana : Socio-Economic Profile
• Approx. 2 million people, but <
200,000 in ‘Kalahari sandveld’
•Wealthy GDP ($8,170 per capita),
but highly skewed with > 30 %
below ‘poverty line’
• Low life expectancy rate (41.4
years) due to HIV/AIDS & poverty
• Despite view as an African
success story, social problems
remain; rural livelihoods livestock
focused & vulnerable (as with most
of dryland Africa)
Botswana : Environmental Profile
• Kalahari sand soils cover 2.5
million km2 of Southern Africa,
typified by open shrub savanna’s
• Climate is semi-arid with high
inter-annual variability, increasing
as mean rainfall decreases to SW
Botswana & Desertification : Past
Portrayals
• “Botswana is one of the most desertified countries in
sub-Saharan Africa” (Barrow, 1991)
• View supported by academic literature in
1970s and 80s
• View still drives agricultural policy
development nationally & (inter)national
support of livestock industry
Botswana & Desertification: Research
Critiques
• Soil erosion far less significant than past portrayal
(Biot, 1988; Dougill & Thomas, 2002)
• Extent & causes of ecological changes (bush
encroachment) remain unclear (Dougill et al., 1999;
Moleele et al., 2002)
• No economic evidence of decline in
pastoral productivity (White, 1993)
• BUT, maps remain
subjective & powerful
Botswana & Desertification: Research
Priorities
• Different portrayals of degradation leaves science open
to political mis-representation
• Assessments must extend beyond soil degradation to
include economically important ecological changes
• Involvement of local communities in rangeland
monitoring & management a key component of UNCCD
Case Study 1 - Botswana Policy
Development
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1966 Independence from Britain
1970 National Agricultural Policy
1975 Tribal Grazing Lands Policy
1991 New Agricultural Policy
2001 National Action Programme to Combat
Desertification ratified
– See http://www.unccd.int/
• 2002 Indigenous Vegetation Project initiated
– See http://www.env.leeds.ac.uk/~mreed/IVP/
• 2004 – National Report on UNCCD including draft
National Action Programme
• Now – Submitted UN funding proposal for development
of a national ‘Land Degradation Policy’
Botswana Draft NAP & Ongoing
National Policy Debates
• Draft NAP recognises the link between poverty &
land degradation & the need to adopt plans,
strategies & legislation aimed at addressing
poverty at community level
• Notable policies cross many spheres / Depts –
– eg. National Development Plan 9; Agricultural Resources
Conservation Act, Forestry Policy, NR Conservation and
Development Policy, Wildlife Conservation & NPs Act
• Institutional support split between Dept of
Agriculture & Ministry of Envt & Wildlife
Challenges for UNCCD
implementation in Botswana
• Consultations & project experiences identify the
following major challenges –
– Need for formal Govt approval of NAP
– Lack of clear framework for implementation at
national level (e.g. which Ministry to co-ordinate?)
– Lack of co-ordination between Govt, NGO’s, CBO’s
and research efforts
– Inadequate awareness among communities with
regard to how to access money for projects
– Limited capacity and resources to implement
community projects
Recent Success Stories / Projects
• UNCCD and donor aid support has led to a number of
positive developments throughout Africa - e.g.
– Bassett & Crummey (2004) – East Africa
– Reij & Waters-Bayer (2001) E. Africa, Zimbabwe & Burkina
Faso
– Scoones (2001) - Ethiopia, Mali & Zimbabwe
– Reed & Dougill (2002); Dougill & Reed (2005) – Botswana
– van Rooyen (1998) - South Africa
– Seeley (1998) - Namibia
– Reij et al. (1996) - Continent wide range of examples
• Key message is one of starting from farmers
experimentation and then joint research with farmers
then linking findings to policy frameworks and
livelihood support projects
Key Features of Successful Projects
• See Table 1 of van Rooyen (1998) as suggested guide
to a ‘perfect project’ - where rural communities can
apply the information received in partnership with
researchers to improve their environment
• Termed Participatory Technology Development - move
to train extension workers in such approaches across
Africa (Reij & Waters-Bayer, 2001)
• Approaches need to be institutionalised and supported
by policy frameworks and land tenure security
Facilitating Participation in
Monitoring and Evaluation
POL Policy development, sector
planning, and programme formulation
ID Programme and project identification
PREP Programme and project
preparation
APP Programme and project appraisal
and approval
IMP Implementation and monitoring
OP Operation and monitoring
NEXT Extensions or Next phase
programme and project identification
EVAL Evaluation
Stages in Participatory Technology
Development