History of Forensic Science
Forensic Science
Application of science to the criminal
and civil laws that are enforced by
police agencies in a criminal justice
system
Yi Yu Ji
(A collection of criminal cases)
The first written account of using medicine
and entomology to solve (separate) criminal
cases
1235: Sung Tzu solved a murder by instructing all
suspects to bring their sickles to one location.
Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually
gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the
murderer confessed.
The book also offered advice on how to
distinguish between a drowning (water in the
lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage).
Noticed no ashes in corpse, used pigs and set up
experiment
1670
First powerful microscope created by Anton
Van Leeuwenhoek
1784
Lancaster, England, John Toms was
tried and convicted for murdering
Edward Culshaw with a pistol.
When the dead body of Culshaw was
examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper
used to secure powder and balls in the
muzzle) found in his head wound
matched perfectly with a torn
newspaper found in Toms' pocket.
Father of toxicology
1814: Scientific paper on poison
published by Matthieu Orfila of
Spain
• the first person to systematise the
study and classification of toxic
substances when he found traces
of poison in the liver of a dead dog.
• Father of Forensic Toxicology
Identification of remains
(odontology and anthropometry)
1879: System of measuring
people by body measurements
developed by Alphonse
Bertillon of France
Known as Father of Criminal
Identification
Most accurate until 1900s when
fingerprints are used
1850s-60s
Crime photography was established
Used to record criminals and crime
scenes
Francis Henry Galton
Father of forensic fingerprint identification
1892: Published Fingerprints, which is used
in the present day
Calvin Goddard
1889: Bullets were matched to gun they were
fired from, the start of ballistics
Sherlock Holmes
Fictional character
Author: Scottish
author and
physician Sir
Arthur Conan
Doyle
Used forensics to
solve crimes
before police did
Brought forensics
to public
Fingerprinting (cont’d)
1902: First person was convicted on
fingerprint evidence
1903: NYC police began fingerprint files of
arrested persons
Who is the main suspect (s)?
Someone was attacked yesterday.
There was a 7.7cm sized bruise on the
victim’s face. There were 24cm sized
shoe prints spaced 38cm apart. Who is
your main suspect?
1905
Theodore Roosevelt establishes FBI
Albert S. Osborn 1910
Established process for questioning
authenticity of documents
Wrote Questioned Documents
Still used today
Hans Gross 1893
Publishes “Criminal Investigation”
Discusses all parts of criminalistics
Start of all forensic journals
1910 – Edmond Locard
Med and law school
background
Convinced police
department in england to
give him two assistant and
attic for forensic evidence
analysis
Started 1st forensics lab
Later started 1st forensic
university
Locard’s exchange principle
When 2 objects come in contact with
each other, a cross-transfer of materials
occurs.
Leone Lattes 1915
Discovered the blood group of a dried
blood stain
1923
First crime lab established in conjunction with
LA police by August Vollmer
1930
FBI sets up
national
fingerprint
file in US
1950
American Academy of Forensic Science
(AAFS) founded in Chicago
Also introduction of computer
chromatography, electrophoresis, and
spectrophotometry
1974
Electron microscopy of gunshot residue
starts
1977
Automated Fingerprint Identification
System of computer scans introduced in
FBI
Walter C. McCrone
Became the premier microscopist in
forensics career
Taught thousands his analytical study
method
1981
FBI opens “Forensic Science Research
and Training Center”
Research new methods
Train personnel
1984
Sir Alec Jeffreys
develops DNA
profiling tests
1986 – DNA used
to convict Colin
Pitchfork of 2
murders and
establish
innocence of
another suspect.
1986
FBI starts databases on DNA,
fingerprints, bullets, and shell casing
More emphasis on the evidence
Constitutional right to counsel has
limited confessions
Satellites allow for sharing of
information but
NO national systems of forensics labs.
Increase in drug crimes
1990s
Increase in DNA technology
Increase in drug analysis outways DNA cases
FBI has largest crime lab in the world
Drug Enforcement Administration labs
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
US Postal Inspection Service
Crime Labs
Some states have state crime labs and
work with local crime labs to share info
and complete tests
NYC has the largest crime lab in the
state
England and Canada have federal
system of regional labs, that charge for
services
Parts to a Crime Lab
1.
Physical Science Unit
• Examine trace evidence back at lab,
compare crime scene evidence,
chemists, physicists, geologists
2. Biology Unit
DNA profiling,
compare wood
and plants
3. Firearms Unit
Detect residue, casings, shells, and firearms
4. Document Examination
Unit
Determine authenticity of documents
5. Photography Unit
Photograph scene, use infrared, UV,
x-rays
6. Toxicology Unit
Bodily fluids and organs for drugs and
poisons
7. Latent Fingerprint Unit
Process and examine evidence of
fingerprints
8. Polygraph Unit
Determine authenticity of witness
testimony
9. Voiceprint analysis Unit
Tying the voice to the culprit
10. Crime-scene Investigation Unit
Collect and preserve evidence to be
processed
11. Forensic Psychiatry
Human behavior to test competency,
disorders and for criminal profiling
12. Forensic Odontology
Dental evidence, bite marks
13. Forensic Engineering
Accident reconstruction, cause and
origin of fire/explosions
14. Forensic Computer and
Digital Analysis
Preserving digital information,
cell phones, computers, etc.
15. Forensic Anthropology
Using skeletal remains to identify information of
victim
Scientific Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
Question: who committed the crime?
Hypothesis
Experimentation
If validated by experimentation, it
becomes scientific evidence
What type of evidence is the
strongest?
Physical
Eyewitness accounts and confessions
can be misconstruded
Determining admissibility of
evidence
Must meet “Frye Standard”
1923
Frye vs. United States
Evidence must widely accepted by the
scientific community to be used at trial
1993
Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals
Decided it was the judge’s decision to ensure
that the testimony is based on evidence and
proper techniques
Start of “Expert Testimony”
Someone who possesses a skill or
knowledge not expected of the average
layperson.
Must ensure the testimony is impartial
so as not to minimize significance of the
analysis.