Slide 1
17—Schools
• Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in
Schools
• Children with Disabilities
• Achievement
• Summary
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Slide 2
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Contemporary Approaches to Student
Learning and Assessment
– Direct Instruction and Constructivist
Approaches
• Direct instruction approach: A teacher-centered
approach that emphasizes teacher direction and
control, mastery of academic skills by children, high
expectations for students, and maximum time spent
on learning tasks.
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Slide 3
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– Direct Instruction and Constructivist
Approaches (continued)
• Cognitive constructivist approaches emphasize
the child’s active, cognitive construction of
knowledge and understanding; Piaget’s theory is the
main developmental theory linked with this
approach.
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Slide 4
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– Direct Instruction and Constructivist
Approaches (continued)
• Social constructivist approaches focus on the
importance of collaborating with others to produce
knowledge and understanding; Vygotsky’s theory is
the main developmental theory linked with this
approach.
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Slide 5
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– Direct Instruction and Constructivist
Approaches (continued)
• Constructivist approaches apply learner-centered
principles; advocates argue that direct instruction
turns children into passive learners and does not
adequately challenge them to think in critical and
creative ways.
• Advocates of direct instruction say constructivist
approaches do not give enough attention to
discipline content.
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Slide 6
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Contemporary Approaches (continued)
– Accountability
• The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation
identifies objectives for students and creates tests to
measure whether students meet those objectives.
• Critics argue that the tests and procedures mandated
by NCLB do more harm than good, stressing that
using a single test as the sole indicator of students’
progress presents a narrow view of students’ skills.
• “Teaching to the test” neglects teaching thinking
skills.
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Slide 7
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Learner-Centered Physiological Principles
• Figure 17.1
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Slide 8
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Early Childhood Education
– In the 1840s, Friedrich Froebel founded the
kindergarten— “a garden for children”—
because children, like growing plants, require
careful nurturing.
– The Child-Centered Kindergarten
• Education that involves the whole child and concern
for his or her physical, cognitive, and
socioemotional development; it is organized around
the child’s needs, interests, and learning style.
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Slide 9
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Early Childhood Education (continued)
– The Montessori Approach
• An educational philosophy, patterned after the
educational philosophy of Maria Montessori, in
which children are given considerable freedom and
spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to
move from one activity to another as they desire.
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Slide 10
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Early Childhood Education (continued)
– Education for Young Children Who Are
Disadvantaged
• Project Head Start is a compensatory program
designed to provide children from low-income
families the opportunity to acquire the skills and
experiences important for school success.
• The Perry Preschool program, a 2-year preschool
program, includes weekly home visits; its graduates
have higher high school graduation and employment
rates, lower dependence on welfare, and lower crime
rates and teen pregnancies.
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Slide 11
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Early Childhood Education (continued)
– Developmentally Appropriate and
Inappropriate Education
• Many educators and psychologists believe that
preschool and young elementary school children
learn best through active, hands-on teaching
methods such as games and dramatic play, and a
focus on social and cognitive development.
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Slide 12
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– Developmentally Appropriate and
Inappropriate Education (continued)
• Developmentally appropriate practice is based on
knowledge of the typical developmental patterns of
children within an age span (age appropriateness)
and the uniqueness of the child (individual
appropriateness), in contrast to developmentally
inappropriate practice, which relies on abstract
paper-and-pencil activities presented to large
groups.
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Slide 13
Exploring Children’s Schooling
NAEYC Recommendations for
Developmentally Appropriate and
Inappropriate Education
• Refer to Figure 17.2
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Slide 14
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Early Childhood Education (continued)
– Controversy about early childhood education:
• Some advocate a child-centered, constructivist
approach like that emphasized by the NAEYC along
the lines of developmentally appropriate practice;
others advocate an academic, instructivist approach;
and others propose both academic and constructivist
approaches.
• Education should encourage adequate preparation
for learning, varied learning activities, trusting
relationships between adults and children, and
increased parental involvement.
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Slide 15
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Elementary School
– For most children, entering the first grade signals a
change from being a “homechild” to being a
“schoolchild.”
– Early schooling proceeds mainly on the basis of
negative feedback, which has a negative impact on
children’s self-esteem as they proceed through
elementary school.
– Contemporary education experts believe children
should be active, constructivist learners, taught through
concrete, hands-on experience.
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Slide 16
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Educating Adolescents
– The Transition to Middle or Junior High
School
• Although the transition from elementary school to
middle school has benefits, it can also be stressful.
• When students make the transition from elementary
school to middle school or junior high school, they
experience the top-dog phenomenon—the
circumstance of moving from the top position in
elementary school to the lowest position in middle
or junior high school.
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Slide 17
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Educating Adolescents (continued)
– Effective Schools for Adolescents
• Critics contend that instead of offering curricular
and extracurricular activities geared to the biological
and psychological development of young
adolescents, middle and junior high schools mimic
the curricular and extracurricular schedules of high
schools.
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Slide 18
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– Effective Schools for Adolescents (continued)
• The Carnegie Foundation (1989) recommends:
– Smaller “communities” with lower student-tocounselor ratios
– Involvement of parents and community leaders
– Curricula that produce students who are literate,
understand the sciences, and have a sense of
health, ethics, and citizenship
– Team-teaching and integrating disciplines
– Boosting students’ health and fitness
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Slide 19
Exploring Children’s Schooling
• Educating Adolescents (continued)
– High School
• Concerns about U.S. high school education include
inadequate reading, writing, and mathematical
skills; students dropping out of high school; and lack
of skills necessary for advancing in the work world.
• Although high school dropout rates declined in the
last half of the twentieth century, they remain high
for Latinos and are especially high for Native
Americans, who have the highest dropout rates in
the United States (30 to 50%).
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Slide 20
Exploring Children’s Schooling
– High School (continued)
• Effective programs provide early reading
programs, tutoring, counseling, and
mentoring; emphasize the importance of
creating a caring environment and
relationships; and offer community-service
opportunities.
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Slide 21
Exploring Children’s Schooling
Trends in High School Dropout Rates
• Refer to Figure 17.3
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Slide 22
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 1
• Discuss approaches to schooling and development
– Review
• What are some contemporary approaches to student
learning?
• What are some variations in early childhood
education?
• What are some characteristics of elementary
education?
• How are U.S. adolescents educated, and what are
the challenges in educating adolescents?
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Slide 23
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 1
– Reflect
• How would you characterize the approach of the
schools that you attended as a child and an
adolescent? Do you think your schools were
effective? Explain.
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Slide 24
Socioeconomic Status and
Ethnicity in Schools
• Socioeconomic Status
– Children in poverty face barriers to learning:
• Parents who don’t set high educational standards,
can’t read to them, and don’t have money to pay for
educational materials and experiences
• Malnourishment
• Crime and violence are a way of life
– Students in low-income areas are more likely to have
low achievement test scores, low graduation rates,
fewer students going to college, less experienced
teachers, and more rote learning.
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Slide 25
Socioeconomic Status and
Ethnicity in Schools
• Ethnicity in Schools
– School segregation is still a factor in U.S. education,
with almost one-third of all African American and
Latino students attending schools in which 90% or
more of the students are from minority groups (Banks,
2002, 2003).
– Students of color, especially African Americans and
Latinos, have inferior educational opportunities, are
exposed to teachers and school administrators who have
low academic expectations for them, and encounter
negative stereotypes (Ogbu & Stern, 2001).
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Slide 26
Socioeconomic Status and
Ethnicity in Schools
• Ethnicity in Schools (continued)
– Strategies for improving relationships among
ethnically diverse students:
• Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom (Aronson,
1986).
• Use technology to foster cooperation with students
from around the world.
• Encourage students to have positive personal contact
with diverse other students.
• Encourage students to engage in perspective taking.
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Slide 27
Socioeconomic Status and
Ethnicity in Schools
• Ethnicity in Schools (continued)
– Strategies for improving relationships
(continued)
• Help students think critically and be emotionally
intelligent when cultural issues are involved.
• Reduce bias.
• View the school and community as a team to help
support teaching efforts.
• Be a competent cultural mediator.
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Slide 28
Review and Reflect:
Learning Goal 2
• Describe the roles of socioeconomic status
and ethnicity in schools
– Review
• How do socioeconomic status and poverty influence
children’s schooling?
• How is ethnicity involved in children’s schooling?
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Slide 29
Review and Reflect:
Learning Goal 2
– Reflect
• In the context of education, are ethnic differences
always negative? Come up with some differences
that might be positive in U.S. classrooms.
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Slide 30
Children with Disabilities
• Children with Disabilities
– Approximately 10% of all children in the
United States receive special education or
related services for a disability.
– Substantial percentages of children also have
speech or language impairments, mental
retardation, and serious emotional disturbance.
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Slide 31
Children with Disabilities
The Diversity of Children Who Have a
Disability
• Refer to Figure 17.4
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Slide 32
Children with Disabilities
• Learning Disabilities
– Characteristics
• Learning disabilities are diagnosed when a child:
– has a minimum IQ level
– has a significant difficulty in a school-related
area (especially reading or mathematics)
– does not display certain severe emotional
disorders, or experiences difficulties as a result
of using English as a second-language
background, or has sensory disabilities or
specific neurological deficits
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Slide 33
Children with Disabilities
• Learning Disabilities (continued)
– About three times as many boys as girls are classified
as having a learning disability due to greater biological
vulnerability among boys and referral bias.
– The most common learning disability involves reading.
– Dyslexia
• A category reserved for individuals who have a
severe impairment in the ability to read and spell.
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Slide 34
Children with Disabilities
• Learning Disabilities (continued)
– Intervention Strategies
• Many interventions have focused on improving the
child’s reading ability (Alexander & SlingerConstant, 2004).
• No model program has proven to be effective for all
children with learning disabilities.
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Slide 35
Children with Disabilities
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
– Characteristics
• ADHD is a disability in which children consistently
show one or more of the following characteristics
over a period of time: (1) inattention, (2)
hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity.
• Diagnoses include ADHD with predominantly
inattention, ADHD with predominantly
hyperactivity/impulsivity, or ADHD with both
inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.
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Slide 36
Children with Disabilities
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
(continued)
– Diagnosis and Developmental Status
• The disorder occurs four to nine times more in boys
than in girls.
• Some experts attribute the increase in diagnosed
cases to heightened awareness of the disorder;
others believe children are being overdiagnosed.
• Signs are often present in preschool years, but
classification often doesn’t occur until elementary
school.
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Slide 37
Children with Disabilities
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) (continued)
– Causes and Treatment
• Proposed causes include low levels of certain
neurotransmitters, pre- and postnatal abnormalities,
and environmental toxins.
• A combination of academic, behavioral, and medical
interventions helps students with ADHD learn and
adapt more effectively.
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Slide 38
Children with Disabilities
• Educational Issues
– 1975: Public Law 94-142, the Education for
All Handicapped Children Act, required that all
students with disabilities be given a free,
appropriate public education.
– 1990: The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) spells out broad
mandates for services to all children with
disabilities.
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Slide 39
Children with Disabilities
• Educational Issues (continued)
– Individualized education plan (IEP)
• A written statement that spells out a program
tailored to a student with a disability. The IEP
should be (1) related to the child’s learning capacity,
(2) specially constructed to meet the child’s
individual needs and not merely a copy of what is
offered to other children, and (3) designed to
provide educational benefits.
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Slide 40
Children with Disabilities
• Educational Issues (continued)
– Least restrictive environment (LRE)
• A setting that is as similar as possible to the one in
which children who do not have a disability are
educated.
– Inclusion
• Educating a child with special education needs fulltime in the regular classroom.
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Slide 41
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 3
• Characterize children with disabilities and
their schooling
– Review
• Who are children with disabilities? What
characterizes children with learning disabilities?
• How would you describe children with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder? What kind of
treatment are they typically given?
• What are some issues in educating children with
disabilities?
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Slide 42
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 3
– Reflect
• Think back to your own schooling and how children
with learning disabilities or ADHD either were or
were not diagnosed. Were you aware of such
individuals in your classes? Were they helped by
specialists? You may know one or more individuals
with a learning disability or ADHD. Ask them about
their educational experiences and whether they
believe schools could have done a better job of
helping them.
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Slide 43
Achievement
• Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
– The behavioral perspective emphasizes the
importance of extrinsic motivation, which
involves doing something to obtain something
else (the activity is a means to an end).
– The cognitive perspective stresses the
importance of intrinsic motivation, which
involves the internal motivation of doing
something for its own sake (an end in itself).
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Slide 44
Achievement
• Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
(continued)
– Self-Determination and Choice
• Researchers have found that students’ internal
motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks
increase when students have some choice and some
opportunities to take personal responsibility for their
learning (Stipek, 1996, 2002).
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Slide 45
Achievement
• Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
(continued)
– Extrinsic Rewards and Internal Motivation
• Although in some situations, rewards can undermine
learning, rewards that convey information about
students’ mastery can increase intrinsic motivation
by increasing their sense of competence.
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Slide 46
Achievement
• Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation (continued)
– Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Motivation
• Grading practices in middle and junior high school
reinforce external motivation; children lock into the
increasing emphasis on grades, which leads to a
drop in internal motivation.
• Middle and junior high schools are more
impersonal, formal, evaluative, and competitive than
elementary schools; when students compare
themselves with other students, relative performance
encourages extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.
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Slide 47
Achievement
– Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Motivation (continued)
• Students who feel they have supportive, caring
teachers are more strongly motivated to engage in
academic work than students with unsupportive,
uncaring teachers (McCombs, 2001; Ryan & Deci,
2000).
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Slide 48
Achievement
Students’ Descriptions of Teachers Who Care
• Refer to Figure 17.5
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Slide 49
Achievement
• Mastery Motivation
– Children with a mastery orientation focus on the task
rather than on their ability, have positive affect, and
generate solution-oriented strategies that improve their
performance.
– Children with a helpless orientation focus on their
inadequacies, often attribute their difficulty to a lack of
ability, and display negative affect. This orientation
undermines their performance.
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Slide 50
Achievement
• Mastery Motivation (continued)
– Performance Orientation
• An orientation that involves being concerned with
the outcome rather than the process; winning is what
matters most.
• Mastery-oriented students focus on the sense that
they are effectively interacting with their
environment; they like to win, but developing their
skills is more important.
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Slide 51
Achievement
• Attribution
– Attributions are the explanations people give
for behavior.
• Dweck emphasizes the importance of whether
students believe their performance depends on their
effort or on some fixed ability, in which event they
are not likely to have a mastery orientation.
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Slide 52
Achievement
• Self-Efficacy
– Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation
and produce favorable outcomes.
– Albert Bandura (1997, 2001, 2004) believes that selfefficacy is a critical factor in whether or not students
achieve.
– Dale Schunk (1991, 2004) believes that self-efficacy
influences a student’s choice of activities; students with
high self-efficacy are more likely to expend effort and
persist longer at a learning task than students with low
self-efficacy.
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Slide 53
Achievement
• Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring
– Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
individuals set goals that are specific, proximal,
and challenging (Bandura, 2001, 2004; Schunk,
2004).
– High-achieving children monitor their learning
and systematically evaluate their progress
toward a goal more than low-achieving students
do.
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Slide 54
Achievement
• Ethnicity and Culture
– Ethnicity
• Graham (1986, 1990) notes that middle-income
African American students, like their white middleincome peers, have high achievement expectations
and understand the role of effort in success.
• Many ethnic minority students living in poverty also
must deal with conflict between the values of their
neighborhood and those of the majority culture, a
lack of high-achieving role models, and poor
schools (McLoyd, 2000).
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Slide 55
Achievement
• Ethnicity and Culture (continued)
– Cross-Cultural Comparisons
• Asian students consistently outperform American
students in mathematics.
• Asian teachers spend more time teaching math than
American teachers do, and Asian students are more
likely to do math homework.
• American parents have lower expectations than
Asian parents for their children’s education and
achievement; American parents are more likely to
believe that children’s math achievement is due to
innate ability rather than to effort and training.
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Slide 56
Achievement
Mothers’ Beliefs about the Factors
Responsible for Children’s Math Achievement
in Three Countries
• Refer to Figure 17.6
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Slide 57
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 4
• Explain the development of achievement
– Review
• What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? How
are they related to achievement?
• How are mastery, helpless, and performance
orientations linked with achievement?
• What is attribution and how is it linked with
achievement?
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Slide 58
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 4
– Review (continued)
• What is self-efficacy, and how is it related to
achievement?
• Why are goal setting, planning, and monitoring
important in achievement?
• How do cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic
variations influence achievement?
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Slide 59
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 4
– Reflect
• Think about several of your own past schoolmates
who showed low motivation in school. Why do you
think they behaved that way? What teaching
strategies may have helped them?
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Slide 60
Summary
• Contemporary approaches to student learning include the
direct instruction, cognitive constructivist, and social
constructivist approaches.
• Demands for accountability have produced extensive statemandated tests, which have strengths and weaknesses and
are controversial.
• Variations in early childhood education include the childcentered kindergarten and the Montessori approach;
developmentally appropriate education is an important
theme.
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Slide 61
Summary
• Compensatory education has tried to break through the
poverty cycle with programs like Project Head Start.
• Model preschool programs have been shown to have
positive long-term effects on children’s development.
• A special concern is that early elementary education
proceeds too much on the basis of negative feedback to
children.
• The transition from elementary school to middle or junior
high school can be stressful; school dropout rates for
Native American and Latino adolescents remain high.
McGraw-Hill
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Slide 62
Summary
• Children in poverty face problems at home and at
school that present barriers to their learning.
• The school experiences of students from different
ethnic groups vary considerably.
• It is important for teachers to have positive
expectations for students of color.
• Comer believes the team approach is the best way
to educate children from diverse backgrounds, and
Aronson created the jigsaw classroom to reduce
racial tension.
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Slide 63
Summary
• Approximately 10% of U.S. children receive
special services because they have a disability;
slightly more than 50% of these children have a
learning disability.
• Learning disabilities include 3 components: (1) a
minimum IQ level, (2) significant difficulty in a
school-related area (especially reading or
mathematics), and (3) exclusion of severe
emotional disorders, second-language background,
sensory disabilities, or specific neurological
deficits.
McGraw-Hill
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Slide 64
Summary
• Dyslexia is a category of learning disabilities that involves
a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell.
• Interventions for children with disabilities often focus on
improving reading skills.
• ADHD is a disability in which children consistently show
problems in one or more of these areas: inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
• Federal laws require that children with a disability receive
a free, appropriate education and be provided adequate
services.
McGraw-Hill
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Slide 65
Summary
• Extrinsic motivation involves doing something to
obtain something else (a means to an end);
intrinsic motivation involves the internal
motivation to do something for its own sake (an
end in itself).
• Most experts recommend a classroom climate in
which students are intrinsically motivated to learn.
• A mastery orientation focuses on the task rather
than ability, involves positive affect, and includes
solution-oriented strategies.
McGraw-Hill
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Slide 66
Summary
• A helpless orientation focuses on personal
inadequacies, attributing difficulty to lack of
ability; negative affect is also present.
• Performance orientation involves concern with
achievement outcome rather than the achievement
process.
• Attributions may focus on internal causes or
external causes; attributing results to effort fosters
achievement.
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Slide 67
Summary
• Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a
situation and produce positive outcomes.
• Setting specific, proximal (short-term), and
challenging goals benefits students’ self-efficacy
and achievement.
• Self-monitoring is a key aspect of self-regulation
and benefits student learning.
• Socioeconomic status typically predicts
achievement better than ethnicity.
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Slide 68
Summary
• U.S. children do more poorly on math and science
achievement tests than children in Asian countries,
and their poor performance has been linked to
characteristics of U.S. schools and parents.
McGraw-Hill
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